Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c5.s2.t9: Saffron
Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c5.s2.t9
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Saffron
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Saffron is a kind of perennial flower of crocus of the freesia genus as well as a common flavouring. It originated in South Asia and is known as *kuïkuma* in Sanskrit, *jáphrán* in Bengali, *zafran* or *kesar* in Hindi, *safran* in Marathi and saffron in English, and its scientific name is *Crocus sativus*. Saffron’s Sanskrit name has several transliteration forms in China, such as Guanjiumo (官久摩), Tujumo (茶矩磨), Tujumo (茶矩么) etc. Its transliteration in Volume 7 of the *Asokavadana* translated by Tripitaka Samghavarman was 官久摩 but in the annotated translation of the text it was written as 翻郁金香 (*fanyu jin xiang*). The flavour was introduced from the central part of India to Kashmir (Jibin). *Yujinxiang* (saffron), is not what is often seen today as the herbaceous tulip plant under the lily family, but it refers to saffron (*Crocus Sativus*). The *Siddhasara-Nighantu* pointed out that “asra is also called *kuïkuma*”. Xuan Ying’s *Sound and Meaning of*
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*Saffron*
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*All Sutras* pointed out that “kuïkuma is the name of a tree and comes from Kophen and its flowers are yellow. After picking them, they are then left in a place to rot and become soft and mushy. The juice is pressed and mixed with other materials to yield a flavour and the flower dregs are fragrant and can be also made into a flavouring.” While saffron was used as medicine occasionally, it was mainly used for flavouring and colouring materials in religious ceremonies. Volume 6 of the *Sarvāsti-vāda* translated by Yi Jing recorded eight main Indian pigments and colours: red purple dye, red violet dye, saffron, cinnabar/vermilion, deep greenish black or deep green or deep blue, alizarin red, yellow lead and sappan lignum. Monks were not allowed to use them to dye clothes.
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[Figure: Red tulip in meticulous intricate Indian embroidery]
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Many places in India abound with saffron. The *Book of the Liang Dynasty* (juan 54) recorded that “saffron originated from Kophes, the colour of the flower was yellow and fine and it was similar to the hibiscus flower and was wrapped in many layers as in the case of a lotus flower. People of that country plucked the flowers and offered them to Buddhist temples. They would accumulate the fragrant dead wood from the plant every day so that they could be used as manure. Businessmen bought them from the temples and sold them to other countries.” Yi Jing’s *An Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas* described the origins and circulation of Indian medicines and wrote that “haritaki grew mostly in the west, saffron grew in the north and the west abounded with asafoetida; borneol was rarely found in the South Seas. Three types of cardamom grew in Douruo. Two-coloured lilacs grew in the Kulun Kingdom.” *Travelling Notes on the Western Regions in the Great Tang Dynasty* also recorded the origins of various fragrant medicines. In *Juan* 1, we find the reference that Kapisa “was famous for horses and saffron. The kingdom had many rare goods.” *Juan* 3 mentions that Uddiyana “abounded with grapes, while sugar cane was rare. It produced gold and iron, and it is suitable for saffron.” Darel of Uddiyana “abounded with gold and saffron.” Kashmir “was famous for dragon studhorses, saffron, fire balls and herbs.” *Juan* 12 similarly contains a reference to Jabula, saying that it “abounded with flowers and fruits, and is suitable for saffron.” The Dunhuang text of Hui Chao’s *Memoir of a Pilgrimage to the Five Regions of India* recorded that Kophen (Kamār) “was famous for syzygium jambos (rose apple), barley, wheat and saffron, etc.” The *Brief Account of the Wei Dynasty* and Chen Zangqi’s *Supplement to Materia Medica* recorded the place of origin and properties of saffron. It grew in Da Qin (the Chinese name for the eastern part of the Roman empire) and it produced flowers in February and March with colours like red and blue. Its flowers could be picked in April and May. Its taste was bitter, flat and atoxic; it could expel all foul odours and get rid of evil air and diseases in bodies. Owing to its fragrance, it would be used in aromatic drugs.
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The section on Records of Foreign Countries in *Juan* 54 of the *Book of the Liang Dynasty* recorded that Funan sent envoys who offered auspicious Indian sandalwood images, sala leaves, fire balls, saffron and storax in the 18ᵗʰ year of Tianjian (519 CE). Several places offered saffron as tribute to the Tang Dynasty as well. In *Juan* 198 of the *Book of the Old Tang Dynasty*, it is recorded that King Siladitya sent envoys to Chang’an in the 15ᵗʰ year of the Zhen Guang reign (641 CE), and sent envoys several times with offerings of saffron and bodhi trees. *Essentials of the Tang Dynasty* (*Juan* 100) recorded that Kapi offered saffron in the 21ˢᵗ Year of Zhen Guang (647). It noted that “its leaves looked like those of the ophiopogon root, its flowers bloomed in September and looked like cotton rose hibiscus in purple and green and its fragrance can be smelt from over 10 steps away. It doesn’t have seeds, so it must be planted from the root.” *Juan* 221 of the *New Book of the Tang Dynasty* recorded that the king of the Dong’an Kingdom in the Western Regions sent envoys to offer Persian mules, bigleaf hydrangea, saffron and refined sugar in the 22ⁿᵈ year of Kaiyuan (734 CE). The scholar Edward Hetzel Schafer pointed out that this kind of plant was introduced into China in the Middle Ages and that saffron powder sold well in the Tang Dynasty. At that time, it was used as an aromatic drug/medicine made out of the fragrance of the plant to treat toxins in the body. The Tang and Song *Materia Medica* and the *Compendium of Materia Medica* of the Ming Dynasty recorded the properties of saffron.
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*Juan* 17 of Sun Simiao’s *Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency* noted that the prescription for lavender incense used aromatic drugs such as holy basil, lilac, green cinnamon, green ‘mu xiang’ (*radix saussureae*), thick leaf croton (*croton crassifolius*), saffron, sweetgum, mastic etc. *Juan* 31 of Wang Tao’s *Medical Secrets from the Royal Library* referred to a lotus herbal ointment made out of lotus seeds which could produce an immediate effect. This was an Indian prescription and its main functions were to cure diseases including deafness and blindness as well as prematurely greying hair and to protect teeth and prolong life. The prescription used four herbs including altemanthera juice, raw fructus oil, lactogenesis and liquorice, with saffron and was very effective. *Juan* 2 of the work *Flavor Vehicles* by Zhou Jiazhou (1582-1658) quoted from the *Overall Survey of Land*, the observation that Samarkand in Central Asia was a great country in the Western Regions, which abounded in yellow saffron looking like cotton rose hibiscus.
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Thus, we can see that saffron was used as an item in diplomatic exchanges as well as a flavouring in religious ceremonies and in daily life. It was a popular commodity in both India and China and it was introduced into China from different countries including India.
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(*Chen Ming*)
Linked texts (1)
- Aśokāvadāna — Sanskrit