Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s10.t7: Yogasutra
Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s10.t7
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Yogasutra
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Created around 2^nd century BCE by Patanjali, the *Yoga-sutra* is a foundational classic text of the Yoga school, an ancient and prominent philosophical school in India. Containing additional parts incorporated later, the extant version of the sutra was compiled between 300-500 CE.
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After the *Yoga-sūtra*, classic texts of the Yoga school mainly comprised commentaries on the sutra, including “*Yoga-s[tra-bhq2ya*” by Vyqsa (around 6^th century CE), the “*Tattva-vaisqrabi*” by Vqcaspati mi1ra (around 9^th century CE), the “*Rajamqrtqzfa*” by Bhoja (11th century CE), and the “*Yoga-vqrttika*” by Vij`qna-bhik2u (16th century CE).
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The Yoga-sutra summarised the theoretical conceptions of yoga practices popular in ancient India, and proposed for the very first time a systematised theoretical framework for Yoga, helping cement Yoga’s position as a prominent philosophical system in the Indian cultural history.
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The *Yoga-sūtra* comprised four volumes, with the fourth one generally believed to be composed much later than the former three ones, as it contains portions reflecting the views and ideas of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
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Volume 1 of the *Yoga-sūtra* gives a definition of Yoga, then goes on to expound extensively on [Figure: The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali - stray thoughts of Dr. Jayadeva Yogendra & Hansaji (front cover)]
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the types of Mind Activities (vṛttayaḥ), the three ways of gaining correct knowledge (pramana), ie Pratyaksha, Anumana and Aptavakya, the various types of “samadhi”, and the four categories of “samāpatti”. In addition, the volume also covers the state of Maheśvara and “scattered mental energy”, as well as certain philosophical concepts the Yoga school shares with the Samkhya school.
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Voume 2 expounds on the so-called kriyā yoga, points out the reasons for reincarnation, pinpoints the source of pain, analyses the various manifestations of “darkness of unwisdom” or agony, enumerates the Eight Limbs of Yoga, introduces the main means of practising Yoga, and specifies the first five “limbs” of Yoga, ie Yamas, Niyamas, Yoga Asanas, Pranayama, and Pratyahara.
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Volume 3 elaborates on the last three of the “Eight Limbs of Yoga”, ie Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi, maintaining that when these three are exercised at once, perfectly concentrated Meditation (“sanyama”) can be attained, which will usher in a transcendent illumination of perception after recognising the difference of the prakrti and the purusha .
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Volume 4 discusses the five means for achieving “siddhis”, ie by birth; through medicine or herbs; through spells or incantations; through austerities; and via the threefold power of Attention, Meditation and Contemplation; positing that the karma of a yogi is “neither white nor black,” while the karma of other people falls into one of the following three types: black, white or black-and-white. The volume also emphasises the theory that if the yogi can perceive the difference between the prakrti and purusha, rid themselves of fixation and acquire “viveka-khyati” (“discriminating consciousness or wisdom”), he may finally achieve the samddhi of the “Dharma-megha” type, in which the “seeds” will be destroyed, enabling one to break out of reincarnation cycles, escape pain and get delivered.
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The *Yoga-sutra* proposes the various overarching concepts that primarily constitute the theoretical system of the yoga school, providing extensive elaboration on mind activities (vṛttayaḥ); Samadhi; Seer and the Seen; Eight Limbs; and Siddhis.
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Mind Activities (vṛttayaḥ) is a major component of the theoretical framework laid down in the *Yoga-sutra*, which defines Yoga as “the mastery of the activities of the mind-field” in VolumeIand II, positing that there are five mind activities: correct perception, incorrect perception, imagination, sleep and memory, which in actuality cover the majority of the spiritual or conscious activities people normally exercise. Although among the five activities there are both correct and incorrect ones, the yoga school held that they all posed hindrances to the attainment of the highest state of wisdom, and therefore should be suppressed, or put specifically, “eliminated” through long periods of “practice” and “abandonment of desires”. “Practice” means to make continuous efforts to achieve mental tranquility, which requires the deepest absorption and great exertions to fend off the external influences; and “abandonment of desires” refers to the efforts to abandon the pursuit of external things, namely to get rid of worldly pleasures and special, transcendental pleasures (such as heavenly pleasures). Through “practice” and “abandonment of desires” one can finally attain the blessed state of “Samadhi”.
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“Samadhi” refers to a sublime state of higher consciousness all yogis strive to achieve, which is further broken down into various levels or categories in the *Yoga-sutras*, including: *Savikalpa Samadhi*; *Nirvikalpa Samadhi*; *Seeded Samāpatti*; *Seedless Samāpatti*; and *Dharma-megha*. It is worth nothing, however, that these “samadhis”, in their respective order, don’t represent a progressive process, but rather, overlap or coincide to varying degrees.
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*Savikalpa Samadhi*: A state of consciousness in which one knows one’s own consciousness (including imagination) but remains in a subject-object relationship with the world.
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*Nirvikalpa Samadhi*: The highest, transcendent state of consciousness in which there is selflessness, no-mind, non-duality, and the subject-object relationship momentarily disappears. It is the highest, samadhi-state of non-dual union with one’s own consciousness.
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*Seeded Samāpatti* is a state of limited and conditioned spiritual consciousness, where although the yogi has gradually expunged many distractions or impressions, he or she has not yet completely eliminated the lingering latent force (seed) resulting from his or her past karmas, thereby condemning himself or herself to the endless cycle of reincarnation.
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A practitioner of Yoga
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Seedless *Samāpatti* refers to the blessed state wherein the lingering latent force (seed) resulting from one’s past karmas has been eliminated or sufficiently suppressed, leading the concerned yogi to break out of the reincarnation cycle and get delivered.
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*Dharma-megha* refers to the heightened state of consciousness achieved by a yogi after he or she has acquired the permanent “viveka-khyati” on sattva (prakriti) and purusa (purusha), wherein both karma and agony have been eliminated entirely, leaving no trace of latent force or momentum (“seed”) whatsoever, culminating in a sublime state all yogis hope to attain.
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Certain states of “Samadhi” are also called “samāpatti”, which is further divided into four categories in the *Yoga-sutras*: *savitarkā-samāpatti*, *nirvitarka-samāpatti*, *savichara-samāpatti* and *nirvicāra-samāpatti*.
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“*Savitarkā-samāpatti*” depends on the yogi’s interest in particular gross phenomena, and represents a state wherein the yogi still retains his or her subjective speech, conceptions, etc.
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“*Nirvitarka-samāpatti*” depends on the yogi’s interest in particular gross phenomena, and represents a state wherein the yogi’s memory is completely purified and the essential inquiring nature disappears.
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“*Savichara-samāpatti*” depends on the yogi’s interest in particular subtle phenomena, and represents a state wherein the dharmatā (intrinsic nature) of things is gradually approximated.
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“*Nirvicāra-samāpatti*” also depends on the yogi’s interest in particular subtle phenomena, and represents a state wherein the dharmatā (intrinsic nature) of things is even further approximated.
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Though by progressing through the four samāpattis mentioned above the yogi can achieve a fairly high level of dhyana, the Yoga school maintained that these four samāpattis are “seeded Samadhi”, meaning that although the yogi has gradually expunged those distractions or impressions, he or she has not yet completely eliminated the lingering latent force (seed) resulting from his or her past karmas. If he or she can go one step further and eliminate or at least effectively suppress the latent force inherent in the “seeded Samadhi”, the blessed state of “Seedless Samadhi” may finally be achieved.
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There are close links between the theories of the Yoga school and those of the Samkhya school. The Samkhya school adopts the ways of practice of the Yoga school, while the Yoga school accepts the Samkhya’s basic theoretical “take” on worldly things. The *Yoga-sutra* holds that for a yogi to get truly delivered, a truthful understanding of the “Seer” and the “Seen” must be gained. The “Seer” is similar to “purusha” (“spirit”) in Samkhya, with the “Seen” equivalent to “prakriti” (“nature”), which is also known as “matter” in the *Yoga-sutra*. The Yoga school maintained that reincarnation results from the combination of “prakriti”and “purusha”. The *Yoga-sūtra* (2, 17) states that, “The cause of what is to be warded off is the absorption of the Seer in the Seen”, meaning that to end the cycle of reincarnation and get delivered, efforts must be made to separate the two, making them independent of each other. And to achieve this “separateness”, one must attain Seedless *Samāpatti* or *Dharma-megha*. In other words, practices must be conducted in accordance with relevant mandates imposed by the Yoga school.
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The *Yoga-sutra* describes the framework of yoga practices as consisted of the “Eight Limbs of Yoga”, ie Yamas, Niyamas, Yoga Asanas, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi. “Yamas” refers to a set of binding “laws”, principles or restraints that must be obeyed by a yogi; “Niyamas” refers to the moral “observances” that a yogi must uphold and exercise; “Yoga Asanas” refers to a steady, firm body position a yogi must adopt and maintain while practising Yoga, which will help them ward off external influences or distractions; “Pranayama” refers to a yogi’s regulating and control of his or her breathing after practice is done; “Withdrawal” refers to “Pratyahara” refers to the withdrawal of the five senses from external objects, so as to prevent the mind from getting distracted by the external world; “Dharana” is the fixing of the mind in a single spot (any chosen object); “Dhyana” is a progression of dharana, ie Sustained concentration on the chosen object; “Samadhi” is a further progression of “Dhyana”, and is the highest state of wisdom for Yogi practitioners to attain.
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“*Siddhis*”, aka “supernormal power”, can only be gained by a yogi on the basis of the last three of the “Eight Limbs of Yoga”, ie Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi, which, collectively, are known as “sanyama”. Different “Siddhis” can be achieved by exerting “sanyama” upon different objects. For instance, through sanyama on animals, the sun, the moon, the stars, body organs and functions thereof, etc., one can accordingly obtain a wealth of supernatural knowledge and miraculous ability. In addition, one may also acquire the “viveka-khyati” to distinguish between sattva and purusha. Once the yogi achieves this particular discerning wisdom, he can gain a mastery over all existences and infinite knowledge. If the yogi can go one step further and get rid of even the “viveka-khyati” itself, the “seed of evil” will be destroyed, enabling him or her to attain absolute “independence” and “separateness” and get delivered.
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Since its compilation, the *Yoga-sutra* has exerted a considerable influence on the Indian philosophical scene, in which Yoga practices that had been going on in the South Asian country since time immemorial were brilliantly theorised and systematised, leading to the formation of a dedicated “Yoga School” in Brahmanism that specialised in yoga practices. The theories contained in the *Yoga-sutra* underwent further improvement thanks to the efforts of the school’s generations of later practitioners in refining existing contents and adding new contents. Numerous philosophical schools in ancient India incorporated Yoga practices into their systems, and many famous thinkers in contemporary India also paid a great deal of attention to the practice of yoga.
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The ideas and theories of the *Yoga-sutra* have since spread to a great many countries around the world, including China, mainly via the introduction of Buddhist literature into the country. The Chinese translations of certain Buddhist scriptures contain references to the *Yoga-sutra* where such subjects as meditation and yoga are touched upon.
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The classic texts and theories of the *Yoga-sutra* have also received widespread scholarly attention in modern China. The *Yoga-sūtra* has been translated into Chinese, with numerous versions of the sutra introduced and published in the country. In addition, a large number of research papers are being published every year on the *Yoga-sūtra* or yoga theories. There are also many Chinese books that specifically deal with the *Yoga-sutra*. Some Chinese universities also offer Indian philosophy or religion courses that contain information on the *Yoga-sutras*. And among Chinese people, yoga elements are adopted primarily with the purpose of boosting physical wellness, with the practice of yoga becoming increasingly popular in the country.
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(Yao Weiqun)
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*A practitioner of Yoga*
Linked texts (1)
- Yogasūtra — Patañjali (author of the Yogasūtra), Sanskrit