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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s3: C. Monasteries

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s3

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English

Contents

C. Monasteries

Mount Wutai

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Mount Wutai, also known as the Mount Qingliang, is one of the four Buddhist holy mountains, which is located on Northeastern Wutai County, Xinzhou, Shanxi province.

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Buddhist Temple at Wutai Mountain, Shanxi, China

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Definition

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Mount Wutai can be explained in the broad and narrow sense. From the perspective of the narrow sense, Mount Wutai just means five plateaus ie east plateau, west plateau, south plateau, north plateau and middle plateau, each of which is flat on the top thus being literally named as Mount Wutai (the Five Plateau Mountain in Chinese). In terms of broad sense, Mount Wutai includes the five plateaus as well as the areas around them and the central zone is the Taihuai town which is encircled by five plateaus. The east plateau, also referred to as Wanghai Peak (sea viewing in Chinese) measuring 2,795 m above sea level, is a good place to view the sea in Autumn when the weather is fine. This is also why people give it this name. The south plateau is 2,458 m above sea level and during summer, there are lots of wild flowers and fine grass everywhere at the top just like its another name the Jinxiu Peak (prosperity and luxury in Chinese); the west plateau, which is 2,773 m above sea level, is called as Guayue Peak (which means moon hanging above the mountain in Chinese) because when the moon comes out in the west, it’s just like a bright mirror hanging above the top of the peak; the north plateau, 3,061 m above sea level, is also named as Yedou Peak (since it rises directly into the sky as if it were able to touch the stars); the middle plateau which measures 2,894 m above sea level features huge rocks and green grass and tresses and therefore, is called as Cuiyan Peak (the prosperity of green plants in Chinese).

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History

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According to legend, Indian eminent monks Kāśyapamātanga and Dharmaratna who are among the first group of Indian monks coming to China, once arrived at the Mount Wutai and believed it as the residence of Manjusri and therefore, suggested Emperor Ming of Han to build a temple here. There are three kinds of views about the connection between Manjusri and Wutai Mountain. The first one is that Manjusri lived in Himalayas but later, the snow-capped mountain was changed into the Mount Qingliang just like what the Avatamsaka Sutra · Bodhisattva Dwellings says: In the north-east, there is a *Bodhisattva* dwelling named as the Mount Qingliang. In the past, *Bodhisattvas* always chose this place to live and Manjusri was just one of them who had 10,000 retinues. This also has nothing to do with Mount Wutai. Therefore, Mount Wutai is not famous during the eastern and western Jin Dynasty and Northern and Southern dynasties. In the 7th century, due to the decay of Buddhism in India and prosperity in China and also due to China's geological position which is in the north east of India and Mount Wutai’s climatic features of being icy cold in winter and snowing in summer, the Mount Wutai was called as Mount Qingliang so that Dharani Sutra says: Buddha told Vajra Secret –Traces Spirits that after he passed away, there was a country named Dazhendan in the northeastern Jambu-dvipa. A mountain named Wuding was just located there which was also the dwelling of Manjusri and a place for him to disseminate the *dharma*”.

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During Northern Wei and Northern Qi Dynasty, Mount Wutai was gaining attention from the emperor. In Sui Dynasty, Yang Jian, the Emperor Wen of Sui (581-604) once ordered to establish a temple in each plateau of the Mount Wutai to enshrine and worship Manjusri but none of them is reserve up to now. Present-day Wanghai Temple in the east plateau, Falei Temple in the west plateau, Puji Temple in the south plateau, Lingying Temple in the north plateau and Yanjiao Temple in the middle plateau were all established after the Tang Dynasty and it was just in this Dynasty that Mount Wutai was ushered into its prime, especially after Buddhist tantra was formed in China and Manjusri, as the God of tantra, was specially worshipped and respected. Not merely did the Chinese Buddhism circle think of the Mount Wutai as the *ashram* of Manjusri, but foreign Buddhists also had such kind of thoughts and paid a visit to this place. Through incessant exploration and expansion of later generations, especially after Tibetan Buddhism made this place a Buddhist holy land, Mount Wutai became even more famous with a large number of grand Buddhist events launched here. Gradually, this mountain, along with the areas around it, developed into the greatest centre of Buddhist culture in Northern China. Today, it has a total of 95 temples in various sizes, recognised as the biggest Buddhism temple complex in China and listed into the Directory of World Cultural Heritage by the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation in 2009.

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Xiantong Temple at Wutai Mountain, Shanxi, China

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Main hall of the Nan Chan Temple, Wutai Mountain, Shanxi, China

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Mount Wutai is not only a place collecting the essence of Buddhism culture but a historical witness of culture exchange between China and India. There are a large number of names of places which have a close link with the Buddhist holy lands of India and Buddhism celebrities such as Griddhraj Parvat, Narayana, Guanyinping, Samantabhadra Pagoda, Rahu Temple, Luohantai, Jingangku, Dishigong etc. After Tang Dynasty, Mount Wutai cultivated a large group of eminent monks thus making a significant contribution to the prosperity of Buddhism culture in China. In addition, some Indian monks also came to this place to worship Manjusri, disseminate the *dharma* and translate Buddhism scriptures such as Buddhapala from Kawmira (present-day Kashmir) on northern India who, after hearing of Manjusri living in Mount Wutai, crossed the desert, travelled thousands of miles and eventually arrived at Mount Wutai in 676 CE, it is said that he came to Mount Wutai with a tin staff (Khakkhara) in his hand, worshipping and weeping piously. Later, he came to Changan (present-day Xi’an) to translate Buddhism scriptures and it is said that he lived in seclusion at Jingangku of Mount Wutai in his later years. Amoghavajra, an Esoteric Buddhism monk in Tang Dynasty who came from north India, was praised highly by the emperor since he admired Manjusri very much and then sent to Mount Wutai in the summer of 770 CE to preside over a *dharma* event and perform meritorious works for the emperor for three months. During the Southern Song Dynasty, Sudhaśrī, a monk of the Nalanda Monastery, highly admired the *Avatamsaka Sutra* and Mount Qingliang and he, at the age of 85, led seven of his disciples to come to China by sea. During a journey full of hardships and dangers, only one of his disciples survived and eventually accompanied him to Mount Qingliang. Three of his disciples returned and the rest all died. Sudhaśrī passed away in the Lingjiu Peak, east plateau and his *sarira* was taken back to India by his disciples. Master Sahajasri, another Indian monk who arrived at the Mount Wutai in 1369 to pay respect to this world renowned Buddhism holy land. Later, he went to Nanjing to do missionary work and returned to Mount Wutai again before death. Sha-kya ye-shes, an Indian monk, descendant of Sakyamuni, paid a pilgrimage visit to Manjusri at Mount Wutai in 1414. He lived in Xiantong Temple and returned to his own country in 1431. There were also thousands of unknown pilgrims who once visited the Mountain.

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Major Temples

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Currently, there are six State Protected Historic Sites and 15 Shanxi Province Protected Historical Sites at Mount Wutai.

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Xiantong Temple

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According to legend, during Yongping Period of the Later Han Dynasty (58-75 CE), Dafulingjiu Temple, one of the earliest temples in China was built at Mount Wutai whose name can be originated from the Griddhraj Parvat of India since the west of the mountain was just like the Griddhraj Parvat. It is located in north of Taihuai town ie the original foundation of present-day Xiantong Temple. In the Yuanhong period of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei (471-499 CE), the Dafulingjiu Temple was expanded and renamed as the Garden Temple. Later, Emperor Taizong of Tang (627-649 CE) rebuilt the Xiantong Temple. During the period of Empress Wu Zetian (684-704), the Garden Temple was expanded and as a result of the newly translated Avatamsaka Sutra in which Mount Wutai was mentioned, the temple was renamed as Avatamsaka Temple. From then on all the way to the Hongwu Period of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1398 CE), a large-scaled overhaul was conducted and the temple was renamed as Xiantong Temple. As the time rolled into the Qing Dynasty, the temple was repaired several times and gradually formed into the size we see today. It totals more than 400 rooms and occupies an area of more than 80,000 sq m thus well-known as the biggest temple at Mount Wutai.

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Foguang Temple

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Foguang Temple is located at Mount Foguang, 25 km away from the north east of Wutai County. It was originally built in the Yuanhong period of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei and then became very famous. In the temple, a hexagonal pagoda named as Zushi Pagoda (Master Founding Pagoda) is a relic of the Northern Wei Dynasty. The Maitreya Pavilion, rebuilt in the Tang Dynasty, seems huge, majestic and impressive. It was damaged in a fire during the Huichang fifth year (845 CE), and rebuilt until the Dazhong 11th year (875 CE). Now, the temple still treasures some precious cultural relics and artworks such as frescos, statues and stone Dhanari column of Tang. What’s more, the Manjusri Hall built during the Jin Dynasty is maintained and treasures six statues including Manjusri’s statue which can be dated back to the Jin Dynasty.

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Rahu Temple

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Rahu Temple is located on the east of the Xiantong Temple in Taihuai town which is named after Rahula, son of Sakyamuni. Manjusri is enshrined here. It was originally built during the Tang Dynasty and then became the monastery of Tibetan Buddhism. During the first stage of the Qing Dynasty, several emperors once paid a pilgrimage visit to the temple and granted funds to repair and expand the temple so its scale was increasing gradually. Now there are more than 500 halls and monk room. It was said that Rahula looked up to Manjusri so he celebrated the birthday of Manjusri on June 14 in lunar calendar every year. Up to now, lamas in the temple also follow this custom. They dance in strange clothes and masks on this day.

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Jinge Temple

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Jinge Temple is situated on the Northwest of the south plateau, 15 km far away from Taihuai town. It was built in the Dali fifth year of the Emperor Daizong of Tang (770 CE). At that time, Amoghavajra, an eminent monk from India, was ordered by the emperor to make merit and build the temple at Mount Wutai. It was named as Jinge Temple (Golden Pavillion in Chinese) because its tiles were made out of copper and painted with gold. Avalokitesvara, the Goddess of Mercy, is enshrined as the main Buddha. In the temple, there are more than 2,000 statues of a variety of Buddhism figures.

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Shuxiang Temple

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Shuxiang Temple is built to pay respect to Manjusri. There is a huge Manjusri statue in it which is why the temple was named Shuxiang Temple. It was located in the southwest of Yanglin Street, Taihuai town. It was built during the Tang Dynasty and rebuilt in the Yanyou period of Yuan Dynasty (1314-1320). Later, it was completely damaged in the fire. In Chenghua 23rd year of Ming Dynasty (1487), the temple was built again and in the Hongzhi ninth year (1496), a gigantic statue of Manjusri riding on a lion, which is nine metre high, was erected in the temple.

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Nanzen-ji Temple

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Nanzen-ji Temple is situated on the west of Lijia town, southwest of Wutai County. The time of its original establishment is unclear. The temple is rebuilt on the Jianzhong, third year of Emperor Dezong of Tang (782 CE) and the Great Buddha’s Hall (Mahavira Hall) built at that time has successfully survived from numerous natural and manmade disasters and has been preserved up to now as the only one wood structure architecture established during the Tang Dynasty, we can see today. The statue of Sakyamuni, the founder of Buddhism, along with the colourful statues of its disciples, Bodhisattvas and heavenly king are all the relics of the Tang Dynasty, a perfect embodiment of sculpture style of that time.

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*(Xue Keqiao)*

Mount Putuo

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Mount Putuo is among the four Buddhist holy mountains in China, located in the sea, east of Zhejiang province, which is one of the islands of the Zhoushan Islands measuring 12.7 sq km. It is governed by the Putuo County and widely known as the generic terms of Buddhism architectural complex in the island built to worship and enshrine the Goddess of Mercy.

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Historical Background

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Mount Putuo has a close link with the belief in Avalokitesvara (Guanyin). In a Buddhism scripture, *The Sutra on the Completion of Brightness*, translated by Zhiyao, a foreign eminent monk in the Later Han Dynasty, the name of Guanyin was mentioned. The book was translated in the Zhongping second year of Emperor Ling of Han (185 CE). After that, in *Infinite Life Sutra* translated by Kang Sengkai in 252 CE, Guanyin was the retinue of Amitabha. In 406 CE, Kumarajiva successfully translated *Saddharmapundarika Sutra* in which, not merely did Guanyin have magic power but was able to change into 33 different shapes and save ordinary people out of disasters and suffering with different identities. From then on, the influence of Guanyin was drastically enhanced. Around 420 CE, the earliest clay sculptures of Guanyin were built in the 169 caves in the Bingling Temple of Gangsu province. In the meantime, people along the regions south of the Yangtze River also began to establish its statues which showed the Chinese people had begun to worship Guanyin. Among the mythical stories created during the Northern and Southern Dynasties, there were some stories about Guanyin helping people in distress. In 663 CE, Master Heun Sang finished the translation of *Mahā-prajñāpāramitā-sūtra* which further propelled the Chinese people’s belief in Guanyin. Since the mid-6th century CE, under the influence of Esoteric Buddhism, the images and statues of Guanyin with multiple arms and heads showed up. During this period, Yaogupta translated the *11th-side Avalokitesvara Mantra Sutra* and *Avalokiteshvara Amoghapasha Mantra*. Later, from the Tang Dynasty to Song Dynasty, a large number of similar Buddhism classics were translated by Master Xuanzang, Vajrabodhi, Amoghavajra, Bodhiruci, Fatian, Tianximie and Dharmabhadra thus ushering the Chinese Esoteric Buddhism into its prime and endowing the image of Guanyin with so many changes.

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*Fayu Temple, Mount Putuo, Zhejiang, China*

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Development

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According to records, during the Dazhong period of the Tang Dynasty (847-860 CE), an Indian monk came to an overseas island around Zhejiang province, who burnt his 10 figures to express his strong desire to see Avalokitesvara (Guanyin) and Guanyin eventually showed up. And therefore, this island was closely connected with Guanyin. In 858 CE, Huie, a Japanese monk got a Guanyin statue from Mount Wutai. On its way home, he stopped on the island to rest. However, he encountered a huge storm so he had to live on this island and later built the Not-willing-leave Guanyin Temple. From then on, the belief of Guanyin began to become very popular on the island. In the Jiading seventh year of the Southern Song Dynasty (1214), Mount Putuo was appointed as the *ashram* of Guanyin to mainly pay homage to Avalokitesvara (Guanyin). According to the records of Buddhist scriptures, the island was also widely thought of as similar as Potalaka (Putuo in short), the residence of Avalokitesvara in south India. Then Potalaka was divided into two parts: Mount Pota and Mount Laka. Mount Laka is also on this island.

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Status quo

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Mount Putuo owned more than 200 temples, Buddhist nunneries and thatched tents accommodating more than 4,000 monks during the era of Republic of China. Later due to major historical changes, there are now just more than 20 temples and Buddhist nunneries with more than 20 sight spots. Puji Temple, Fayu Temple and Huiji Temple are the three greatest temples on Mount Putuo. Puji Temple is located south of Baihuangding, Mount Putuo. Originally built in the Yuanfeng third year of the Northern Song Dynasty (1080) and expanded in the Wanli 33rd year of the Ming Dynasty (1605), Puji Temple was destroyed by the armed forces of Netherlands on the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi of Qing Dynasty (1665) and was rebuilt on the 38th year of the reign of Kangxi (1699). At present, there are more than 200 palace halls and rooms covering an area of 11,400 sq m. The main palace hall was rebuilt on the ninth year of the reign of emperor Yongzheng (1731) and could accommodate more than 1,000 people for religious services. The sitting statue of Avaloktesvara and statue of Thousand-Hand Guan-yin are both modern works. Fayu Temple is located east of Baihuangding at the foot of the Guangxi Peak. It was built in the eighth year of the reign of Emperor Wanli, Ming Dynasty (1580) and originally named as Haichao Nunnery and later renamed Huguo Zhenhai Temple. The temple was once damaged by fire but in the 28th year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Qing Dynasty (1689), it was rebuilt and renamed Fayu Temple on the 38th year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi, with an area of about 8,800 sq m. In the Hall of Avalokitesvara Buddhisatva, a huge statue of Avalokitesvara was consecrated with the statues of 18 Arhats on both sides. Huiji Temple is located at the top of Mount Putuo. At first, there was just a stone pavillion with a Buddhist statue for people to worship on its original location but later it was built into Huiji Nunnery. In the 58th year of the reign of Emperor Qianlong, Qing Dynasty (1793), the Nunnery was rebuilt and expanded into Huiji Temple. As they rolled into the 33rd year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu, Qing Dynasty (1907), another large-scaled expansion for the temple was completed.

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Memorial Archway at Mount Putuo, Zhejiang, China

Mount E'mei

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Mount E'mei is among one of the four holiest Buddhist mountains in China. It is located in E'mei, Leshan City of Sichuan province. According to legend, the mountain was the *ashram* for Samantabhadra to make its presence and power felt and disseminate *dharma*.

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Introduction

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Today, the scenic region of the Mount E'mei covers 154 sq km, including four great mountains, ie Da-E, Er-E, San-E and Si-E. Mount E'mei, generally speaking, refers to Mount Da-E, also known as the main peak of Mount E'mei. The top of the peak is called Wanfo Peak (Thousands of Buddha Peak in Chinese) which is 3,099 m above sea level and wriggles more than 50 km from the top to bottom. As of now, there are about 26 temples in the mountain which mainly include Baoguo Temple, Fuhu Temple, Qingyin Pavilion, Wannian Temple, Xianfeng Temple, Huazang Temple etc. accommodating around 300 monks and nuns. In 1982, Mount E'mei was approved by the State Council to be in the first category of national scenic areas. In 1996, it was listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization into the World Heritage List. In 2007, Mount E'mei was officially approved by the National Tourism Administration to be a five star A Tourist Scenic Area.

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History

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According to legend, Buddhism was introduced into Mount E'mei during 1st century CE and at the end of Han Dynasty, the Buddhists began to build temples here. But this does not appear to be reliable

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The main hall of the Huazang Temple on Mount E'mei, Sichuan, China

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enough. Originally, Daoism was very popular here and during the period of Eastern Jin Dynasty, there were Daoists who came to Mount E'mei to practice Daoism. In Tang and Song Dynasty, Daoism and Buddhism began to co-exist in the mountain and from then on, Buddhism began to prevail over Daoism and became well-accepted. During Ming Dynasty, Buddhism was ever-popular and Daoism became gradually weaker and weaker and at this period, the number of Buddhists on Mount E'mei became more than 1,700 persons with nearly 100 temples of different sizes scattered all over from top to bottom. By the end of Qing Dynasty, the number of temples had increased to more than 150.

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The history of Mount E'mei as the *ashram* of Samantabhadra can be traced back to the Eastern Jin Dynasty. According to legend, Puxian Temple was already built at that time which was the predecessor of present-day Wannian Temple. The temple was renamed Baishui Temple during Tang Dynasty. People during the period of Northern Song Dynasty had already enacted a huge copper statue of Samantabhadra in Mount E'mei and this was the reason for renaming the Baishui Temple as Baishui Samantabhadra Temple and from then on, the belief in Samantabhadra dramatically enhanced.

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Major Temples

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Baoguo Temple, sitting at the foot of Mount E'mei was originally named Huizong Temple. It was built during the reign of Emperor Wanli, Ming Dynasty (1573-1620 CE), and rebuilt during the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1662-1722 CE). It treasures a huge number of cultural relics, the most important of which include (1) the 14-floor red copper Avatamsaka Sutra pagoda is 7 m high, made in Ming Dynasty and carved with 4,700 small Buddhism statues and entire Avatamsaka Sutra (2) the Buddha statue was made out of colour ceramic glaze and was built in the 13th year of the reign of Emperor Yongle, Ming Dynasty (1415) which is 2.47 m high with glittering and translucent colour. The Wannian Temple, originally named Puxian Temple, was built during the Eastern Jin Dynasty (4th century CE). It was renamed as Baishui Temple in the Tang Dynasty and as Baishui Samantabhadra Temple in the Northern Song Dynasty. During the period of the reign of emperor Wanli, Ming Dynasty, a palace hall made out of bricks was built there so emperor Wanli named it as Shengshou Wannian Temple and the name of Wannian Temple still exists. The brick palace hall was also named Wuliang Hall which boasts of significant research value from the perspective of architecture. Inside the hall, there is a huge copper statue of Samantabhadra riding a six-tooth white elephant measuring 7.35 m high and weighing 62 tonnes. This was built in Taipingxingguo 5th year of the reign of Emperor Taizong, northern Song Dynasty. Until now, it has stood there for more than 1,000 years.

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The hilltop of Mount E'mei, Sichuan, China

Mount Jiuhua

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Mount Jiuhua is one of the four Buddhist holy mountains in China in Qingyang County, Chizhou of Anhui province. It was called Lingyang Mountain or Jiuzi Mountain in ancient China. During Tang Dynasty, Li Bai, the famous poet, and his friends made a trip to this mountain and noticed its nine peaks which look like a lotus and thus renamed it as Mount Jiuhua.

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Mount Jiuhua, as a nation-level scenic spot, occupies an area of 334 sq km, whose highest peak is the Shiwang Peak, 1,342 m above sea level. Within 100 km around the mountain, there are 99 peaks, all boasting beautiful views. On a horizontal inscribed board, Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795) entitled Mount Jiuhua as The First Mountain in southeast China. As one of the Buddhist holy lands in China, Mount Jiuhua has 99 temples in total, nine of which are listed as nation-level key temples and 30 of which are province-level key temples. The famous temples include Ganlu Temple, Huacheng Temple, Zhiyuan Temple, Zhantanlin Huiju Temple etc. At present, Mount Jiuhua has about 600 monks, treasures 6,300 Buddhism statues and more than 2,000 precious historical relics.

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According to legend, Kim Gyo-gak (696-794 CE), an eminent monk from ancient Silla came to China to learn Buddha Dharma during Kaiyuan period of Tang (713-741 CE) and lived in Mount Jiuhua to practice Buddhism. Some local rich men built temple for him. In the Zhide second year of Tang Dynasty (757 CE), the temple was completed. From then on, Kim Gyo-gak began to accept disciples to promote Buddhism and gradually became more and more famous. He even attracted many monks from Silla to learn Buddhism from him. He lived at Mount Jiuhua for more than 10 years and passed away in the Zhenguan 10th year of the Tang Dynasty (794 CE) at the age of 99. His body still seemed alive even after three years. People, in accordance with so many magic events that took place before and after his death, believed he was the reincarnation of Ksitigarbha and with reverence called him golden Ksitigarbha. Therefore, Mount Jiuhua became the ashram of Ksitigarbha. Later, with some major changes in the Tang, Song and Yuan Dynasties, Mount Jiuhua Buddhism was greatly developed until the early Ming Dynasty and reached its peak in the Qing Dynasty. At that time, there were around 300 temples accommodating more than 4,000 monks in the mountain. Since 1978, a grand Ksitigarbha *Dharma* assembly would be held by the Mount Jiuhua Buddhist Association each year to pray for world peace. In 2013, the consecration ceremony for the 99 m high outdoor bronze statue of Ksitigarbha was grandly launched at the Dayuan Cultural Park of Mount Jiuhua. The statue was made of more than 3,000 bronze plates which consumed over 1,100 tonnes of bronze with three elevators inside it to carry visitors to the top.

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Roushen Palace (Flesh Body Palace)

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Since Tang Dynasty till now, there have been many Buddhists following golden Ksitigarbha’s lead, thus establishing the tradition of flesh body Nirvana in Mount Jiuhua. There were 15 monks and nuns who underwent flesh body nirvana and now there are flesh bodies of five eminent monks available for believers to worship. The Flesh Body Palace is where the body of golden Ksitigarbha is saved and there was a flesh body pagoda in the palace. During the reign of Emperor Wanli, Ming Dynasty, the government granted heavy funds to rebuild the flesh body pagoda of golden Ksitigarbha and great hall outside the pagoda. The palace was rebuilt again in the 22nd year of the reign of emperor Kangxi, Qing Dynasty (1683) and was later repeatedly rebuilt in 1886, 1914, 1955 and 1981. Currently, it covers an area of 705 sq m. Each year, on July 15th of the lunar calendar, when Ksitigarbha was born and on July 30th of the lunar calendar when he became immortal, his believers and followers surge to Mount Jiuhua to burn incense, chant sutras and even keep watch at night.

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*Tiantai Temple at Mount Jiuhua Anhui, China*

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Statue of Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha at Mount Jiuhua Anhui, China

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Huacheng Temple

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Huacheng Temple is located in the middle of Jiuhua Street, on a small town in the mountain 600 m above sea level. It is the most time-honoured temple and also the main temple in Mount Jiuhua, built on the Longan fifth year of Eastern Jin Dynasty (401 CE) and in which the golden Ksitigarbha once practised Buddhism for a very long time. The temple was officially named Huacheng Temple on the Jianzhong first year of the reign of Emperor Dezong, Tang dynasty (780 CE) and a year later, it was determined as the *ashram* of Ksitigarbha. The temple reached its peak in the Ming and Qing Dynasty.

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Zhiyuan Temple

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Zhiyuan Temple is well-known as the most majestic temple in Mount Jiuhua which is named after Jetavana, a holy land of Indian Buddhism. Originally built during the reign of Emperor Jiajing, Ming Dynasty (1522-1566), the temple gained great fame since the Jiaqing period of Qing Dynasty (1796-1820) when it was expanded.

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(*Xue Keqiao*)

White Horse Temple

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White Horse Temple is China’s first government-run temple. It is located in Luoyang City, Henan Province which is known as the birthplace of "Chinese Buddhism".

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According to historical records, in 67 CE, Emperor Han Mingdi dreamt of a golden person. He then sent messengers towards the West in search. In 68 CE, Indian Monks, Kāśyapamātanga and Dharmaratnawas, on invitation arrived in Luoyang on a white horseback carrying Buddhist scriptures and statues. The following year emperor Hanmingdi ordered the construction of a Buddhist Monastery in the northern part of Royal Road, three miles outside the Xiyong Gate and named it - “White Horse Temple.” From the date of completion of construction, the White Horse Temple has witnessed several vicissitudes, repeated damages due to wars and was rebuilt several times. Its size was the highest during the rule of Wu Zetian in the Tang Dynasty and it received a maximum of 3,000 monks at a time. In 1555 CE, when Huang Jin held the position eunuch and the Governor, he renovated the White Horse Temple. To a large extent, the present scale and layout of the White Horse temple is from that time. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, the government has rebuilt the temple several times - in 1952, 1954 and 1959. In 1961, the White Horse Temple was declared as a national cultural relic protection unit by the State Council.

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The main gate of the White Horse Temple at Luoyang, Henan, China

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Indian-style Buddhist Hall at the White Horse Temple, Luoyang, Henan, China

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In 1997, the Religious Affairs Bureau of Luoyang made an overall planning for the White Horse Temple. It was decided to build a “International Buddhist Monastery Hall” in the western side of the temple building. In April 2005, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao and Indian Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh signed the memorandum of “India’s Indian-style Buddhist Hall in the White Horse Temple in Luoyang, China.” In April 26, 2006, the groundbreaking ceremony of the construction was held at the White Horse Temple. On May 29, 2010, the hall was officially inaugurated with the then President of India, Pratibha Patil, attending the inauguration ceremony. The hall is located in the western side facing the east, it is around 100 m long from east to west and stretches around 60 m in width from north to south. It occupies a construction area of about 3,450 sq m, the main building is about 30 m high, inside is enshrined a Buddha statue up to 4.5 m high. This resembles India’s World Heritage Site of Sanchi Stupa in its design and construction. The Indian Government sponsored a fund of Rs 50 million for the completion of the Hall, it is the first overseas Buddhist hall construction funded by the Indian Government.

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(*Zhang Ran* & *Qiao Anquan*)

Famen Temple

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Famen Temple (Famen Vihar) is one of the most renowned Buddhist temples in China situated at Fufeng County, Baoji, Shaanxi Province. It is famous for treasuring the finger sarira (relics) of Sakyamuni.

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Famen Temple was built during the late Eastern Han Dynasty (second half of the 2nd century CE) and was originally referred to as Asoka Temple. At first, it was just a pagoda built over the relics of Buddha. Later a temple was constructed next to the pagoda. According to legend, after unifying the India, Asoka the Great divided the Buddhist relics into 84,000 shares and sent spirits to deliver them to various countries for the purpose of promoting Buddhism. Pagodas were built by people to worship those relics. It’s said that these relics reached 19 places in China and the Famen Temple, also known as the Asoka Temple was just the fifth. In 494 CE and 602 CE, the pagoda was opened twice for believers to worship the relics. In the Wude seventh year of Tang Dynasty, the temple was officially renamed as “Famen Temple” by the emperor and during Zhenguan period of Tang Dynasty (627-649 CE), the pagoda was opened three times. The pagoda was originally named as Grave of Saints and then it was turned into a four-level wooden building with a new name as Huguo Zhenshen Pagoda (Buddha Pagoda for the protection of country) in Tang Dynasty.

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Inviting and welcoming the Buddha’s relics was the grandest Buddhist event during Tang Dynasty, which was launched every 30 years. There were eight emperors of Tang inviting Buddha bones six times into the imperial palace for worship and sent them back twice to the Famen Temple to show respect. Each time the event was marked by a grand campaign with the involvement of a large majority of people. The most impressive one took place in the Xiantong 14th year (873 CE) with two years of careful preparations before the official launch of the event. When the relics were welcomed, endless stream of horses and carriages was seen day and night along the road more than 100 km away from the capital city all the way down to the Famen Temple and free food and drinks were available on the way for anyone who participated in the event. A guard of honour for the Buddha’s relics was performed under the guidance of imperial palace guards with the escort of ministers, famous monks and other dignitaries. During the whole process, banners and flags covered the sky, great music filled the air and ordinary people lined on both sides of the road for a good look at this grand ceremony. Decorated archways stood up on each street in the capital city of Chang’an, Tang Dynasty. The Emperor himself waited with reverence for the arrival of the Buddha bones standing on the city gate tower while the ministers and citizens stood on both sides of the street. The relics, after arrival, would be worshipped for three days in the imperial palace and then sent to various temples in the capital city for people to worship them. On this occasion, ministers and rich people rushed to donate money, ordinary people from all over the country took their sons and old parents to receive blessings and some of the believers even indulged in self sacrifice by breaking their arms or fingers or burning their hair or arms to display their loyalty and devotion. In January next year, the bones were sent back to the Famen Temple, which called for another event of ostentation and extravagance. This was the last known public event to worship Buddha relics according to the ritual in Buddhism. The *finger sarira* (relics) of Sakyamuni and thousands of rare treasures would remain buried in the underground palace beneath the pagoda during the subsequent period of 1,113 years. The underground palace [Figure: The Relic of the Buddha's Finger at Famen Temple, Shaanxi, China]

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Pagoda at the Famen Temple, Fufeng County, Baoji, Shaanxi, China

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continued to remain closed even at the time of establishing the dagoba.

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However, in August 1981, the dagoba built during the Ming Dynasty collapsed by half and then finally in the spring of 1987, an archaeological team discovered and opened the underground palace and thus uncovered the finger *sarira* (relics) of Sakyamuni and a large number of other precious ancient cultural artifacts.

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(Xue Keqiao)

Jianchu Temple

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Jianchu Temple (Jianchu Vihar) is one of the most time-honoured temples in China. Dabao'en Temple is just its predecessor. In 247 CE, Kangsenghui, a monk from the Western Regions (a Han Dynasty term for the area west of Yumenguan including what is now Xinjiang and parts of Central Asia) came to Jianye (now Nanjing) to promote Buddhism and disseminate *dharma*. He successfully convinced Sun Quan, the King of Wu kingdom of the Three Kingdoms period, to believe in Buddhism and then the King issued an order to establish a temple for him. Since it was the first Buddhist temple built in Jianye, it was originally called Jianchu Temple. The location of the temple is called Fotuoli where Kangsenghui once lived. Later, Jianchu Temple was renamed several times, changing from Changgan Temple in the Southern Dynasty, Tianxi Temple in Song Dynasty to Dabao'en Temple in Ming Dynasty.

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(Xue Keqiao)

Daxingshan Temple

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Daxingshan Temple (Daxingshan Vihar) is a wellknown Chinese Buddhist temple located at Nan Xiaozhai, Xi'an City, Shaanxi Province. It was built between the Taishi and Taikang years of the reign of Emperor Wu, Jin Dynasty (265-289 CE) and as one of the oldest temples in Xi'an has lasted for more than 1,700 years. The temple was originally named Zunshan Temple and then renamed as Daxingshan Temple during the Kaihuang period of the Sui Dynasty (581-604 CE), when Xi'an was expanded.

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Daxingshan Temple can be referred to as a memorable place in the history of cultural exchanges between India and China. In the seventh year of Kaihuang period Sui Dynasty (587 CE), a Buddhist scriptures Translation Institute was built in the temple and many famous translators of Buddhist scriptures from India such as Narendrayasas, Jnanagupta, Dharmagupta etc. resided and worked there. In the third year of Zhenguan Period, Tang Dynasty (629 CE), Master Prabhamitra from Nalanda Monastery of India presided over this institution. Between the fourth and eighth year of the Kaiyuan period (716-720 CE), Esoteric Buddhist monks, the so-called Three Great Beings in the Kaiyuan period of Tang Dynasty, known as Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra translated more than 500 historical classics of Esoteric Buddhism here. In the 15th year of the Tianbao period (756 CE), Tang Dynasty, Daxingshan Temple was presided over by Amoghavajra, an eminent monk who was the royal preceptor for three emperors of Tang Dynasty, Xuanzong, Suzong and Daizong. He had once launched Esoteric Buddhism rites for the dissemination of *dharma*. Moreover, there was the Amoghavajra Tripitaka Stone Tablet in the temple built during the first year of Jianzhong period of Tang Dynasty (780 CE).

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后世，大 型善寺多次被毁，也多次被重建。1945年，太虚法师等于寺内创设世界佛学苑巴利学院。1955年，政府拨款全面大修。1983年被国务院列为全国重点开放寺院之一。Famous Chan master Yi Xing also lived in the temple to study and research in astronomy, mathematics and shastras (classics), and made a tremendous contribution to the ancient astronomy of China. During his time, Daxingshan Temple was one of the three greatest translation institutes for Buddhist scriptures in Chang'an and also the birthplace of Chinese Buddhist Tantrism.

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In the later period, Daxingshan Temple was damaged and rebuilt several times. In 1945, some people led by Master Taixu established the World Buddhist Center for Pali Studies here. In 1955, the Chinese government allocated funds for a thorough reconstruction of the temple and listed it in 1983 into the category of the “National Important Temples Opened for the Public”.

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The main hall of the Daxingshan Temple, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China

Asoka Temple

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Asoka Temple (Asoka Vihar) is one of the time-honoured temples in the history of China, located on Mount Asoka in Yínzhou district of Ningbo, Zhejiang Province.

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According to legend, during the period of King Asoka (3^rd^ century BCE), the legendary emperor who created the Maurya Dynasty in India, held the third Samgiti, also the greatest in size in the history of Buddhism in Pataliputra (present-day Patna) during which the *Tipitaka* was compiled and organised. His children and some monks were sent to the different places in the world to disseminate and promote Buddhism. By the records of Buddhism scriptures, King Asoka also took out Buddha Sarira from Limnophila Aquatica (Grand Pagoda) in Rajgir and divided it into 84,000 parts. Then he ordered a spirit which could fly to establish a total of 84,000 pagodas all over the world in one night. It was rumoured that he built 19 dagobas in China, one of them located in Yin County, Zhejiang province. Now, the only history relic saved till today is the dagoba of King Asoka.

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According to historical records, in the Taikang third year of the Western Jin Dynasty (282 CE), an eminent monk, Huida, looked for the dagoba at the foot of Mount Mao and then built a cottage room there to live and protect the dagoba. This is the original location of Asoka Temple. The temple was originally built on the Yuanjia, second year of the Southern Dynasties (425 CE) and expanded twice in the Yuanjia 12^th^ year (435 CE), thus laying the solid foundation for the development of the Temple. In the Putong third year of the Liang Dynasty (522 CE), the emperor bestowed a horizontal inscribed board with the words, Asoka Temple on it and then the name of the temple was officially established. Another saying goes like this - in the Yixi first year of the Jin Dynasty (405 CE), people established a pavilion on the dagoba in a

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*Archway at the Asoka Temple, Yinzhou, Zhejiang, China*

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bid to protect it and this was the origin of the Asoka Temple. In later dynasties, the temple was rebuilt and repaired repeatedly, thus forming into the size we see today. In 1983, the temple was selected by the State Council of the People’s Republic of China as the National Key Temples of Buddhism in Han Nationality Regions. Asoka Temple is very famous since it is a remarkable dagoba. It covers an area of more than 60,000 sq m with more than 600 rooms and the area of structure is around more than 30,000 sq m. In 1987, there were over 70 monks living there. The temple treasures some very valuable historical relics such as the calligraphy by celebrities in various dynasties and in the Depository of Buddhist Sutras, there are the Qing Dynasty version of Longzang which totals 7,247 volumes and Qishaban Tibetan Tripitaka, both of which are rare collections. In 2006, Asoka Temple was listed by the State Council into the Sixth Group of the National Key Cultural Relics Protection Units.

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(*Xue Keqiao*)

Tanzhe Temple

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Tanzhe Temple (Tanzhe Vihar), known as the oldest temple in Beijing, is originally named as Jiafu Temple and later renamed Xiuyun Temple. There was a dragon pond behind the temple and cudrania tricuspidata in the mountain, therefore, it was named “Tanzhe” temple.

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It is located in Mentougou district, Beijing, 40 km away from downtown Beijing. The temple is extremely huge. The inside area of the temple is 2.5 hectare with a total of 943 rooms among which 638 rooms belong to the ancient architecture, while the outside area is 11.2 hectare. The temple remains in the style of Ming and Qing Dynasty and is quiet famous for being the biggest architectural complex of ancient temples in Beijing.

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Tanzhe Temple was originally built in the Yongjia first year of Jin (307 CE) or the Jianxing fourth year (316 CE). During Wansui Tongtian period of the reign of Queen Wu Zetian, Tang Dynasty (696- 697 CE), Tanzhe Temple was enlarged and became very popular. Many believers would come to burn incense here, thus making it the most important temple in Youzhou. On the Huichang fifth year of Tang (845 CE), Li Yan, the Emperor Wuzong of Tang (841-846 CE) disapproved of Buddhism and as a result Tanzhe Temple was abandoned. Later, the temple was restored again but suffered with sluggish development. In the Jin Dynasty, several Zen masters in Tanzhe temple gained wide recognition from public and the temple restored reputation again. In the Huangtong first year of Jin Dynasty (1141), the emperor himself paid a pilgrimage visit to Tanzhe Temple. He issued an order to repair and expand the temple. As the time went into Yuan Dynasty, princess Miaoyan, daughter of Kublai Khan, became a nun at Tanzhe Temple and spent her entire life there. At the end of Yuan Dynasty, Emperor Shun (on the throne from 1333-1368), who was a firm believer of Buddhism, paid a special attention to Tanzhe Temple. He once invited Zen Master Xue Jian of Tanzhe Temple to enjoy dinner cooked by his younger sister with him. Such a special treatment is said to be unprecedented. Yao Guangxiao, an important minister during the early Ming Dynasty, was originally a monk with Dao Yan as his *dharma* name, who once helped Zhu Di (on the throne from 1403-1424) to usurp the throne. Afterwards, he resigned and returned to Tanzhe Temple to practice Buddhism and Emperor Zhu Di visited him over and over again. Most of the emperors of Ming Dynasty and their wives were all firm believers of Buddhism and the government granted funds repeatedly to overhaul and expand Tanzhe Temple. In the 25th year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Qing Dynasty (1686), the Emperor came to the temple to pilgrimage Buddha for several days and lavishly granted funds. In the 31st year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Emperor granted 10,000 taels of silver to rebuild the Tanzhe Temple. In the 36th year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Qing Dynasty, the Emperor made a trip to the Tanzhe Temple twice and gave it a namet, thus making it to be the biggest royal temple in Beijing. Later, several emperors paid a visit to the temple or granted funds to maintain it.

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*Asoka Temple at Yinzhou, Zhejiang, China*

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Tanzhe Temple, Beijing, China

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Tanzhe Temple is a witness for the cultural exchange between India and China. In Ming Dynasty, Diwadasi, an eminent monk from eastern India once practiced Buddhism in the temple and was buried there after he passed away.

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(*Xue Keqiao*)

Lingyin Temple

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Lingyin Temple (Lingyin Vihar) is one of the oldest temples in China which stands at the foot of the mountain on the west of the West Lake, Hangzhou. It was originally built in the Xianhe first year of Eastern Jin Dynasty (326 CE).

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According to legend, Master Huili, an eminent monk from west India, once roamed in Zhejiang province. When he arrived at Wulin (present Hangzhou), he saw a peak and said: “This is just like the small mountain ridge located on the Griddhraj mountain of India. I have no idea when did it fly here? When Buddha lived in this world, they preferred to live in seclusion as immortal spirits. Therefore, he built a temple in front of the mountain and called it, Lingyin Temple (Temple of Soul’s Retreat). When the temple was built, Buddha *dharma* had not been well recognised in China. During the reign of emperor Wudi of the Southern Liang Dynasty (502 to 548 CE), the temple was expanded and in the Dali sixth year of Tang (771 CE), a major restoration was carried out. After that, the temple became more and more popular attracting thousands of people to burn incense and long for the blessing of Bodhisattva. During the Huichang fifth of Tang (845 CE) the temple, however, was damaged once again and the monks were dismissed. Another two projects for rebuilding and expansion of the temple were launched during the Five Dynasties after which the temple regained its momentum and became very popular again, accommodating more than 3,000 monks. Hangzhou is the capital city of Song Dynasty and during this period, several emperors paid a pilgrimage visit to the temple thus allowing the Lingyin Temple to develop greatly. During the period of the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, Qing Dynasty (1644-1661), Master Jude, abbot of the Lingyin Temple, collected money for the repair and maintenance of the temple and spent 18 years to bring a completely new outlook for the temple. In the 28th year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Qing Dynasty (1689), the Emperor made an inspection trip in the south, and personally inscribed four words “Yun Lin Chan Temple” for Lingyin Temple. In 1936, the temple was damaged in fire, but after 1949, several large-scale repair and maintenance projects were carried out for the temple. Now, it has become prosperous and popular again with many people eager to burn incense and worship there.

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Lingyin Temple at Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

Caotang Temple

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Caotang Temple (Caotang Vihar) is one of the most time-honoured temples in China and also the earliest Translation Institute Buddhist Scriptures in the history of Chinese Buddhism. It is situated about 15 km from the south of the Qin town, Hu County, Shaanxi province.

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The temple was originally known as Da Temple. In the Hongshi third year of the later Qin Dynasty (401 CE), Emperor Yaoxing invited Kumarajiva, an eminent monk from the Western Regions (Han Dynasty term for the area west of Yumenguan including what is now Xinjiang and parts of Central Asia) to Chang’an and arranged him to live in the temple to translate Buddhist scriptures. From then on, the temple was named Caotang Temple. Later, the temple experienced rise and fall with the change of dynasties and its name was also changed several times. After 1949 CE, the Chinese government, along with the Japanese Buddhist societies, frequently granted funds to restore it thus allowing the temple to gradually expand into the size it is seen today.

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Caotang Temple had close ties with Kumarajiva, a prominent Buddhist master in the history of Chinese Buddhism and also an eminent and extraordinary translator of Buddhist scriptures. He was skilled in both Sanskrit and Chinese and translated 94 Buddhist scriptures in 425 volumes in his entire life. Ji Zang, an eminent monk in the early stage of Tang Dynasty, created the Three Treatise School on the principle of three shastras - *Madhyamaka Shastra*, *Sata-shastra* and *Dvadashamukha Shastra*, all translated by Kumarajiva and honoured him as the ancestor of Three Treatise School. Caotang Temple was a place where Kumarajiva once conducted translation work and was, therefore, known as the ancestral Chamber of the Three Treatise School.

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Portrait of Kumarajiva

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The dagoba of Tripitaka Dharma Master Kumarajiva in the Yaoqin period is the most valuable historical relics in Caotang Temple. According to a legend, after Kumarajiva passed away and was cremated, his body was burned into ashes but his tongue was not damaged. His disciple collected his *Sarira* and established a dagoba in memory of him. However, the current dagoba was not the original one but built during Tang Dynasty.

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(*Xue Keqiao*)

Shaolin Temple

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Shaolin Temple (Shaolin Vihar) is a well-known Buddhist temple in China, located in Mount Shaoshi, 13 km from the west-northern Dengfeng, Henan Province. It is one of the best embodiments of the India-China cultural exchange.

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Shaolin Temple was built in the ninth year of Taihe period, Northern Wei Dynasty (495 CE). On the east of Mount Songshan, is Mount Taishi while Mount Shaoshi is on the west. Shaolin Temple gained its name because of its location in the bamboo forest of Wuru Peak (Five Breast Peak) in Mount Shaoshi. In the third year of Xiaochang period, Northern Wei Dynasty (527 CE), Bodhidharma, an Indian monk, came to Shaolin Temple of Mount Songshan. Since then, Shaolin Temple became well-known in the world.

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According to historical records, *Bodhidharma* was the prince of a country in south India, who gave up the throne for Buddhism and later came to China by sea. First he went to Jinling (present-day Nanjing) to meet Xiao Yan, Emperor Wudi of the Liang Dynasty (on the throne from 502 to 547 CE) and then started a journey northward, during which he passed by Luoyang and eventually settled at the foot of Mount Songshan. In a rock cave of Shaolin Temple, he sat in meditation facing a wall for the entire nine years and began to accept students and disseminate the *dharma*. Today, Damo Cave in Shaolin Temple is just the place of Bodhidharma sitting in meditation. During Tang Dynasty, Zen Buddhism was officially established which recognised retroactively Bodhidharma as the Adiguru of Chinese Zen. Zen is a product of Indian Buddhism in China and has a certain relationship with Bodhidharma’s thought and practice. Therefore, Shaolin Temple became the “ancestral Chamber” of Zen.

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