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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s7.t16: Six Stramana Masters

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s7.t16

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Six Stramana Masters

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Liushi (Six Teachers) Six persons representing non-Brahmin or anti-Brahmin thoughts formed around the sixth century, contemporary with the Buddhist founder Shakyamuni, who were referred to as “Six non-Buddhist teachers” in Buddhist texts, including Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, Ajita Kesakambala, Pakudha Kaccayana, Sanjaya Belatthiputra and Nigantha Nataputta. Activities and thoughts of these six persons had a significant influence on non-orthodox schools in ancient Indian history, and constitute some characteristic theories in Indian philosophy.

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Purana Kassapa, as tradition has it, was the son of a slave, disputed with Buddha, and drowned himself at Sravasti 16 years after the Buddha’s Enlightenment. His teachings are recorded in the Buddhist texts, including the one in Pali *Samannaphala Sutta*, the one in Chinese *Dirghagama-sutra* and *Samyuktagama sutra*.

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There is not much information on his life and activities. The *Samyuktagama sutra* records in Book 3, “Purana Kassapa is a preacher of heterodox doctrines and surrounded by 500 non-orthodox followers, talking loudly about secular matters”, and in Book 5, “Purana Kassapa is a popular teacher and followed by five hundred disciples, including the wise and the foolish. When he dies, no one can tell where he is.”

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Purana Kassapa denies the theory on punishment and reward. He holds, from good (bad) deeds does not come reward (punishment). As the *Dirghagama-sutra* states in Book 17, “killing, theft, sexual indulgence, nonsense, burglary, arson and blockade are not bad. Neither mass killing on the south of the Ganges is punished, nor mass alms giving on the north of the Ganges is rewarded”. Pali *Samaññaphala Sutta* reports similar in Book 17, Purana Kassapa is said to believe, “If with a razoredged disk one were to turn all the living beings on this earth to a single heap of flesh, a single pile of flesh, there would be no evil from that cause, no coming of evil… through generosity, self-control, restraint, and truthful speech there is no merit from that cause, no coming of merit.” Purana Kassapa’s theory negates that the rewards and punishments can be caused by people’s actions, which directly results a concept of the meaningless of morals.

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Purana Kassapa denies any reward or punishment for either good or bad deeds, as he denied any cause-effect relationship. He holds the existence of all living beings or feelings as natural and has no

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*Six Tirthika Teachers, Dazu Rock Carvings, Chongqing, China*

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particular reason or fate, as the *Samyuktagama sutra* represents in Book 3, “*No cause and no fate, living beings are dirty; no cause and no fate, living beings are clean*”.

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In extant historical texts, ideas of Purana Kassapa are often confused with those of Makkhali Gosala and Pakudha Kaccayana, since they are usually identified as teachers of Indian Ajivaka (or Ajivika). And so, their ideas were not clearly distinguished by later generations. Ajivika has been existent in India for about two thousand years. At the time of these three persons, their doctrines were not hard to be known, but after they died, people easily forgot and confuse the doctrinal differences and similarities between these Ajivika predecessors. Besides, Pali texts and Chinese texts do not provide consistent relevant information.

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Makkhali Gosala, contemporaneous with Nigantha, the founder of Jainism, once acted together with Nigantha, but departed due to disputes and differences.

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Pali *Samaññaphala Sutta* and Chinese Agamas all contain concise information about his life. As the Dirghagama-sutra states in Book 17, “Makkhali Gosala heads the masses, is learned, reputed, accepts everything just like a vast sea, and is followed by many.”

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Dirghagama-sutra provides clear information about his view, as Book 17 states, he asserts “no giving, no sacrifice, no good or bad law, no good or bad reward, no this world and no afterworld.” The Samyuktagama sutra (Book 5 and Book 35) also contain some relevant information. In fact, as Pali texts shows, Makkhali Gosala holds that things develop from its own living environment and its nature. Humans can do nothing to change it and their life is not controlled by any specific cause. For instance, the *Samaññaphala Sutta* (Book 20) states, “There is no cause, no requisite condition, for the defilement of beings. Beings are defiled without cause, without requisite condition. Beings are purified without cause, without requisite condition.

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There is nothing self-caused, nothing other-caused.” This is a kind of fatalism, and it denies the then popular retribution, reward and punishment as well as the impact of human deeds on subsequent life.

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Historical texts often confuse Makkhali Gosala’s teachings with those of other “six teacher” Makkhali Gosala, Purana Kassapa and Pakudha Kaccayana are all identified as early thinkers of Ajivika, but Makkhali Gosala is considered to be the major contributor to early Ajivika thoughts. Therefore, many tend to deem Makkhali Gosala as the founder of the Ajivika movement.

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Ajita Kesakambala is an important representative of Lokayata, a philosophical school in ancient India.

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Systematic information on his life and activities is no longer available, but there are many fragmentary discussions about him and Lokayata ideas. Texts such as the Pali *Samaññaphala Sutta*, and Chinese versions of the *Dirghagama-sutra* and the *Abhidharma-mahāvibhāsā-sastra* all contain relevant information.

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Most of extant Indian and Chinese texts on Lokayata fail to distinguish ideas of Ajita Kesakambala and those of other Lokayata thinkers. Therefore, people cannot rely on Lokayata-related texts to find out the teachings of Ajita Kesakambala. Clear information about his ideas can be found in Amagas and the Pali *Samaññaphala Sutta*.

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The *Samyuktagama sutra* and the *Dirghagama-sutra* contain some information about the life or activities of Ajita Kesakambala. For instance, the *Samyuktagama sutra* reports that “he is also surrounded by 500 disciples like others of the Six Teachers”. Another version of the *Samyuktagama* (Pinyin: *Bie Yi Za A Han Jing*) sutra states in Book 3, “like others of the Six Teachers, he does not believe in anuttara-samyak-sambodhi”. The *Dirghagama-sutra* in Book 17 represents him as “a popular leader, learned and reputed”.

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As for his teachings, the *Dirghagama-sutra*, in Book 17, states, Ajita Kesakambala holds, “When a man dies, his constituent four elements are gone and empty, with earth back to earth, water to water, fire to fire and wind to wind. Put a dead man and his bed amid tombs, and burn and turn them into grey colour or ash. Be wise or foolish, a dead man is nothing”. “Four elements” are the basis of his teachings, and in this respect, Ajita Kesakambala thinks that alms giving, sacrifice and offering are meaningless, and there is no heaven and no hell. For instance, According to the Pali *Samaññaphala Sutta* (Book 23), Ajita Kesakambala asserts that “there is nothing given, nothing offered, nothing sacrificed. There is no fruit or result of good or bad actions. There is no this world, no next world, no mother, no father, no spontaneously reborn beings; no priests or contemplatives who, faring rightly and practising rightly, proclaim this world and the next after having directly known and realised it for themselves. Generosity is taught by idiots. The words of those who speak of existence after death are false, empty chatter. With the break-up of the body, the wise and the foolish alike are annihilated, destroyed. They do not exist after death.” These ideas are all based on four elements, since if four elements are the only basis for all things, then afterworld, heaven, hell and retribution will be unfounded, and karma will not arise, alms giving, sacrifice and the like will be without meaning, and Brahmanic teachings will be false and useless.

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Though not the earliest exponent, Ajita Kesakambala put forth explicit Lokayata thoughts quite early. The Pali *Samaññaphala Sutta* and Chinese versions of *Amagas* do not include all Lokayata theories, and Buddhist texts also fail to fully present Lokayata’s ideas about the connection between consciousness and material and about hedonism, but some Brahmanic or Hindu texts (for example, the *Sarva-Siddhānta-Samgraha* and the *Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha*) contain clear information about Lokayata. However, these texts do not indicate which can be attributed to Ajita Kesakambala.

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Pakudha Kaccayāna Little is known about his life. The *Samyuktagama sutra* in Book 5 also identifies him as one of the heterodox teachers, and alleges that “he *is also* surrounded by five hundred disciples”.

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Pakudha Kaccayāna holds a doctrine of “Seven Substances”. The *Samannaphala Sutta* (Book 26) represents this view as follows: “There are these seven substances -- unmade, irreducible, uncreated, without a creator, barren, stable as a mountain-peak, standing firm like a pillar — that do not alter, do not change, do not interfere with one another, are incapable of causing one another pleasure, pain, or both pleasure and pain. Which seven? The earth-substance, liquid-substance, fire-substance, wind-substance, pleasure, pain, and the soul as the seventh… that do not alter, do not change, do not interfere with one another, and are incapable of causing one another pleasure, pain, or both pleasure and pain. And among them there is neither killer nor one who causes killing, no hearer nor one who causes hearing, no cogniser nor one who causes cognition. When one cuts off [another person’s] head, there is no one taking anyone’s life. It is simply between the seven substances that the sword passes.”

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The *Samyuktagama sutra*, in Book 7, does not explicitly mention the name of Pakudha Kaccayāna, but has a description similar to the Pali *Samaññaphala Sutta*, which, as a result, can be known to be the ideas of Pakudha Kaccayāna. It says, “There are these seven substances are unmade, not reduced, and do not kill, do not move, and are firm. Which seven? The earth-substance, the liquidsubstance, the fire-substance, the wind-substance, pleasure, pain, and the fate as the seventh……that are unmade, unreduced, do not kill, do not change, do not move, do not interfere with one another, and are incapable of causing good luck, bad luck or both good luck and back luck or of causing one another pleasure, pain, or both pleasure and pain. When one’s head is cut off, it is simply seven substances that the sword is directed to, and there is neither killer nor killing”. Chinese texts are similar to Pali ones. Actually, Pakudha Kaccayana proposes a seven-element theory, and holds that all things or phenomena are made up of these elements.

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Pakudha Kaccayana also denies the causal relationship in human life. According to the *Dirghagama-sutra* represents (Book 17), “No cause and no fate, living beings are defiled; no cause and no fate, living beings are purified. All living beings are powerless and un-free, and no enmity is predestined. ” Such disapproval of reward and punishment is popular among the Six Teachers.

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Pakudha Kaccayana’s ideas are very close to and therefore are often confused with those of Makkhali Gosala in Buddhist texts. However, Makkhali Gosala represents the orthodox of the Ajivika, while Pakudha Kaccayana is considered by some scholars as a heterodox sect.

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**Sanjaya Belatthiputra** A contemporary of the Buddha, not much is known about his life. The *Samyuktagama sutra* (Book 5) reports him “being surrounded by five hundred disciples”. He is said to have two major disciples, ie Sariputa and Maudgalyayana, who later on turn to Buddhism together with many followers of Sanjaya Belatthiputra.

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Both Pali and Chinese texts contain the teachings of Sanjaya Belatthiputra. Some of his ideas are close to Buddhism. For example, according to the *Samaññaphala Sutta* (Book 32), he is said to have said, “If you ask me if there exists another world after death, if I thought that there exists another world, would I declare that to you? I don’t think so. I don’t think in that way. I don’t think otherwise. I don’t think not, and I don’t think not not.” When being asked whether there are retribution for good and bad and whether Buddha exists or not after death, he would not give an explicit answer, and indicate the answer cannot be no or yes or anything clear-cut. This is similar to Buddhism’s 10 or 14 Avyakrtas. The *Dirghagama-sutra*, in Book 17, also states, that when being asked whether human deeds and cultivation have retribution, he replies, “There is retribution, there is no retribution, there is not and there is not not”. This indicates that he was skeptical of the then prevailing ideas, and it was a popular approach then adopted to oppose Brahmanism.

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*Samyuktagama-sutra (Za Ahan Jing), Song edition*

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**Nigantha Nataputta** A major founder of the Indian Jainism, Vardhamana is his childhood name, and later he is called “Mahavira” by his followers. He was born into a Ksatriya family in Vaishali, and has stayed with Makkhali Gosala for several years, but departed later on. He is said to have died at the age of 72.

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Agamas contain many of his deeds or ideas. For instance, the *Samyuktagama sutra* in Book 31, mentions his opposition to killing, As Nigantha says, “Those who kill and keep killing frequently are destined for naraka, and so are those who tell lies.” According to Bie Yi Za A Han Jing, “Nigantha Nataputta often says: all those who take life are destined for a state of deprivation, are destined for hell. All those who steal… All those who indulge in illicit sex… All those who tell lies are destined for a state of deprivation, are destined for hell. Whatever one keeps doing frequently, by that is one led to a state of rebirth”. One reaps what he sows. What about religious practices? As the *Dirghagama-sutra* (Book 17) states, someone asks Nigantha Nataputta, “Great merit, like a man rides an elephant or a horse and the like, now has retribution, will those that are now cultivating themselves have retribution?” Nigantha replies, “I am omniscient and know everything. Like walking, staying, sitting and lying down, wisdom will arise when a full knowledge is there.” He does not give a direct reply, and uses “omniscient” to answer the question of retribution. The *Ekottaragama-sutra*, in Book 51, reports Nigantha as “persuasive, often deranged and unsettled”, and in Book 41, states that Nigantha has similar ideas as other teachers, and reports, “there is an old man in Rājagriha, named Shi Li Jue,…… neglectts Buddhist dharma but follows the heterodox Nigantha. The King and ministers all know him. Then, non-orthodox Brahmans and Nigantha as well as laymen and monks belittle Buddhism, including all Six Teachers.” This revealed some of Nigantha Nataputta’s features and his view on Buddhism.

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“All those who take life are destined for a state of deprivation, are destined for hell. All those who steal… All those who indulge in illicit sex… All those who tell lies are destined for a state of deprivation, are destined for hell. Whatever one keeps doing frequently, by that is one led [to a state of rebirth].”

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Nigantha Nataputta has also been mentioned in Pali texts. According to *Samaññaphala Sutta* (Book 29), “Nigantha refrains from all cold water, follows all restraints and avoid all evils”, shows some characteristics of Nigantha Nataputta and later Jainas. Restraint from cold water has something to do with the Jain concept that atman exists in all things (including earth, water, plants, etc.). Since water contains atman as well, drinking cold water will kill atman in it, and killing is an violation of ordinances and has to be stopped. “Follow all restraints and avoid all evils” is also related to Jain asceticism and other strict religious practices.

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**The Role in the History of Indian Thoughts** In ancient India, Brahmanic or orthodox doctrines prevail, and the “Six Teachers” have an important role in non-Brahman or anti-Brahman teachings around 6ᵗʰ century BCE, and their theories have a great contribution to the formation of the non-orthodox schools. Many of their ideas directly oppose prevailing Brahmanism. For instance, Ajita Kesakambala’s four elements and Pakudha Kaccayana’s seven elements deny the unitary Braham, disagree that things are ruled by the Brahman or the Gods, and hold that all things are made up of a variety of elements. These thoughts promote the formation of the atomism that is influential in the history of Indian thinking. The “Six Teachers” mostly deny reward and punishment, reincarnation and karma and reflect the ideas then prevailing among the lower classes, and a major representative of these ideas is Lokayata, which daringly opposes various religious doctrines, including Brahmanism, and facilitates some scientific thoughts to grow and develop in ancient time.

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**Dissemination and Influence in China** The “Six Teachers” were born in the period around the birth of Buddhism, and they maintain frequent contacts with early missionary monks, and so are frequently mentioned in early Buddhist texts. These texts are brought into China, and many of them are translated into Chinese. Therefore, the Chinese Buddhist circle has been familiar with the “Six Teachers” for long. When refuting or talking about heterodox schools, the “Six Teachers” are often referred as main or typical non-orthodox leaders of the Buddha period. Their lives and teachings are nothing strange to many ancient Chinese.

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In modern China, Buddhism scholars, especially those that study early Indian Buddhism, all have a basic knowledge or discussion of “Six Teachers”. Chinese scholars also publish treatises on the ideas of the “Six Teachers”, Chinese publications on Indian Buddhism or philosophy usually contain chapters on the “Six Teachers”, and college courses on Indian religion and philosophy also cover the “Six Teachers”.

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(*Yao Weiqun*)

Cites (7)