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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c12.s2: Overview: Health and Fitness

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c12.s2

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English

Overview: Health and Fitness

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Originating from the basic need for survival and reproduction, both India and China have from very ancient times developed their own methods for self-cultivation and well-being (ie health and fitness). In China, this is represented in Qigong and in India, in Yoga.

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Exchanges in Pre-Christian Era

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Very early in their history, the Indians developed a combination of physical and mental exercises and named it Yoga. Material evidences from archaeological excavations indicate that Indians during the Indus Valley Civilisation were well-versed in the art of meditation. In *Rigveda*, the meaning of word "Yoga" already appears in the present sense of self-cultivation and well-being and not in the original sense of "to bind" or "to unite". Referring probably to the earliest Yoga practitioners, the *Atharaveda* mentions that they were ascetics who obtained magical/supernatural powers. There are several explicit references to Yoga in the *Taittiriya Upanishad*. The *Shvetashvatara Upanishad* further elaborates various postures and breathing methods of Yoga as well as places connected with its cultivation, frequently encountered illusions in its practice, its contemporary practical uses and ultimate goal that one should aspire to achieve. Appearing later, the *Maitri Upanishad* provides more advanced details of basic branches of Yoga and especially formulation of its earliest "ix classified category"; ie Prāṇāyāma (control of breath), Pratyāhara (withdrawal/ control of senses), Dhyāna (meditation), dharana (concentration of mind) and tapas/jnāna (consciousness/speculation). The Hindu holy book *Bhagavad Gita* may have been originally composed during the 4th or 3rd century BCE. It categorises Yoga into several types, like "Jnāna Yoga", "Karma Yoga", "Rāja Yoga" and "Bhakti Yoga". It also explains essentials of the other concepts like *prāṇāyāma* and *dhyāna* which formed categorised Yoga into two categories - *Karma Yoga* and *Jnana Yoga* and listed eight stages or eight fold paths for its practice of yoga: 1. Respect for others (*yama*), 2. respect for yourself (*niyama*), 3. body posture (*āsana*), 4. breath control (*prāṇāyāma*) 5. withdrawal of senses (*pratyāhāra*), 6. concentration (*dhāaraṇa*), 7. contemplation/meditation (*dhyāna*) and 8. ecstasy (*samādhi*). This is the classification of the Indian Yoga system.

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Sitting in dhyāna (meditation)

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To maintain good health through the practice of meditation (dhyāna)

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Beginning with Gautama Buddha himself, Buddhists accepted the Hindu Yoga. In fact, Buddha practiced Yoga-meditation during six years of his ascetic period before attaining enlightenment. Following the Yoga-meditational practices introduced by sages, he achieved buddhahood sitting in vajrasana posture for the whole night. Later, the Buddhists developed their own distinct meditational styles (Vipassyana) as is evinced in rituals and practices in the Buddhist scriptures. The Buddhist Yoga system was more like a form of meditation which distinguished it from Brahmanism.

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During the same period, China’s record in the development of a system for the self-cultivation and well-being is relatively sketchy. Books like *Huangdi Neijing* (*Huangdi’s Canon of Medicine*) and *Laozi* discuss the relationship between man and nature and propose a system for maintenance of well-being. This centers on the theory of “Qigong (life energy cultivation)” but does not specify the methods of its practice. *Zhuangzi: Selected Articles* also refers to the guiding principle for the self-cultivation and well-being in breathing exercise; ie “exhalation and inhalation of breath”. It is noted that China has been practicing Qigong since long but its descriptions are rather fragmentary. Only in the 4ᵗʰ century BCE, the *Qi Jade Inscription* refers to the contemporary Chinese Qigong theory with details of its practice.

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In fact, both the Chinese Wushu and the South Indian Kalaripayattu, originated very early. They are not only combat skills but also a system for the preservation of health and maintenance of well-being.

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1ˢᵗ-6ᵗʰ century CE

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The Buddhist Yoga-meditational practice once introduced in China began to affect indigenous Chinese practices for self-cultivation and well-being. The Chinese not only followed the Buddhist meditation but also developed its theory.

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the basic theory of Yoga. As this classification closely resembles the *Shvetashvatara Upanishad*, the time of its original composition may also be sometimes during the 3ʳᵈ century BCE.

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In the 2ⁿᵈ century CE, An Shigao on his way to Luoyang translated *Anapanasati Sutta* and other similar texts in Luoyang. He taught his disciples Theravada meditation. Later also in the 2ⁿᵈ century CE, Master Loujia Chen reached Luoyang and translated *Shurangama Samadhisutra*. He, however, preached the Mahayana school of meditation.

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Around the 2ⁿᵈ century BCE or perhaps a little later, Patanjali, a Brahmin scholar of Eastern India, summarised the theory and practices of his predecessors and wrote the famous *Yoga Sutra*. He Since then, all the relevant Buddhist Classics were translated one after another.

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Buddhis followers practicing dhyāna (meditation)

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By 3ʳᵈ and 4ᵗʰ century CE, many Buddhist scriptures had come to China from India. Some advances in the meditation theory and practice were also made by the Chinese Zen practitioners. Indian/Kujian monk Buddhaprsad, (231 ~ 348 CE), Chinese monks Dao An (312 ~ 385 CE) and his disciple Huiyuan (334 to 416 CE) promoted the Zen school. (343 ~ 413 CE) translated several Buddhist texts, among them the ones on Zen Buddhism are entitled *Chan Mi Yao Fajing* (The Secret of Zen Law), *Zuo Chan Sanmei Fa Men Jing* (Primer for Samadhi through Meditation), etc. According to the volume XI of *Gaoseng Zhuan* (Memoirs of Eminent Monks) many contemporary monks enjoyed longevity and health due to their practice of Zen Buddhist meditation; and some of them even lived up to 110 years.

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There were also simultaneous developments in Daoism which in turn promoted further advances in Chinese Qigong. Several works related to Qigong like *Xianjing* (Classic for the Immortality), *Fu Qi Jing* (Classic for Breathing Cultivation), *Ming Yi Lun* (Discussion on Ming Medical Theories) appeared and contributed to its formation as a well-developed system.

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In 5ᵗʰ and 6ᵗʰ century, Buddhist monks continued to come to China from India. They translated Buddhist scriptures and also contributed to the spread of Zen Buddhism leading to its mutual interaction with Daoist Qigong. Influenced thus, many Chinese scholar-monks produced significant works on Zen. Indian Monks like Gunabhadra (394 ~ 468 CE) from Kapisa (Kashmir), Gunavarman (367 ~ 431 CE), and Dharmamitra (356 ~ 442 CE), as well as Liangliang Yeshe [Kālayashas] (c. 390 to 450 CE), and others from the western region became famous because of their translation of Zen Buddhist scriptures and transmission of Zen Buddhism. Bodhidharma (528 or 536 CE) from south India stayed in China for nine years and widely introduced his native meditational style. He is one of immortal figures in the history of Qigong.

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Famous Daoist scholar and medical doctor, Tao Hongjing (452 ~ 536 CE) composed ‘*Yangsheng Yanming Lu: Fu qi liaobing pian* (Extracts on Nourishing Spiritual Nature and Prolonging BodilyLife/Cultivation and Longevity – Cultivating Qi For Healing)’. He summarised the approach to longevity and treatment of disease through Prāṇāyāma. Monk Tanluan (476 ~ 542 CE) left home at a young age due to his illness. He went to the southern reaches of the Yangtze to receive medical training and knowledge from Master Hongjing and thoroughly learnt ten volumes of ‘*Xian Jing* (Classic for Immortality)’. Later, he also trained under Bodhiruci (c. 5th – 6th century CE), a north Indian monk in China. Influenced by him, he burnt Daoist text *Xian Jing* (Classics for Immortals) and converted to Buddhism with great fanfare. He spent his remaining life writing several books. Among them, important ones concerning self-cultivation and well-being were *Diao Qi Lun* (Theories of Prānāyāma), *Fuqi Yaojue* (Essential Methods for Breathing Exercises) - later also known as *Tanluan fashi fuqi fa* (Monk Tanluan’s Breathing Exercises), *Liao bai bing za wanfang* (Prescriptions for Miscellaneous Pills to Cure Hundreds of Diseases), and others.

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Shi Chuan’s *Tao Luan Fashi fuqi* (Master Tao Luan’s Method for Breathing Exercise) has only 300 words. It basically explains the method of *Prāṇāyāma*, and the essential theory of self-cultivation and well-being. This method is as follows: first, sit relaxed, loosen all sleeves and clothes, and place both hands on the knees. Second, chant “Faxing pingdeng sheng si bu er jing (Essence of dharma is same, life and death are advaya / absolute truth without duality) Third, close eyes and touch palate with the tongue. Fourth, gradually fully exhale breath, first from fast to slow, and then slow to fast, doing each way more than ten times. Master Tanluan considers that the disharmony among four elements (earth, water, fire and air) are the cause of disease, "as cold increases with the wind, heat rises with the fire, slipperiness advances with the water, and astringent develops in the earth. Therefore neither cold, heat, slipperiness and astringent could reconcile”. Tan Luan’s method of prāṇāyāma thus obviously appears to fuse the Yoga theories of Buddhism and Daoism.

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During this period of integration of the Buddhist theory with the Daoist Qigong, a Chinese monk, Zhiyi (538 – 597 CE) compiled the theory of the great Zen master. His representative works on Zen were *Mohe Zhiguan* (The Great Vipasyana), *Xiao Zhiguan* (Primary Vipasyna) , *Shi Chan Bo Luo Mi Ci Di Fa Men* (Explanation of Graduated Dharma Method of Dhyanaparamita), and *Liu Miao Fa Men* (Six Profound Gateways to Dharma). Among them, the *Xiao Zhiguan* (Primary Vipasyna) "small meditation" is an introductory book of Zen meditation practices. It summarises earlier Buddhist scriptures and theories and the practices of their predecessors, and concludes with ten problems concerning the "(i) fulfillment of prerequisite condition, (ii) renunciation of desire, (iii) elimination of hindrances, (iv) making adjustments, (v) implementation of skillful means, (vi) actual cultivation, (vii) manifestation of roots of goodness, (viii) recognition of the work of demons, (ix) treatment of disorders, and (x) realisation of truth". Zhiyi considered that the Mahayana meditation should be an "unified practice" learning only to meditate and not to gain wisdom is as foolish and frivolous as learning wisdom only and not the practice of meditation. Integrating theories of the Indian Buddhist meditation with the Daoist Qigong, he developed and enriched the essential content of China's Zen Buddhist meditation.

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Vegetarianism is also an integral part of the practice of self-cultivation and well-being both in India and China. It was promoted by Buddhists' emphasis on ahimsa (ie respect for all living things and avoidance of violence). Chinese Buddhists were not completely prohibited from consuming meat, but they also advocated vegetarianism. Many Zen Buddhists practiced vegetarianism at the time of chanting the scriptures. Emperor Liang Wudi (502-549 CE) believed in Buddhism and strongly promoted vegetarianism through his edicts on "Discard Meat and Wine Culture". This prohibited consumption of meat and wine for monks and nuns. This not only later established the practice of vegetarianism among them but also gradually affected the non-Buddhist community in China and promoted a distinctly vegetarian Chinese culinary culture.

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6ᵗʰ-13ᵗʰ century CE

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During the period from 6ᵗʰ to 13ᵗʰ century CE, Zen Buddhist and Daoist Qigong theories mutually influenced and progressively absorbed so much from each other that their developed an integrated

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Qian qin yaofang (prescriptions worth a thousand in gold, Tang Dynasty compendium on herbal medicine by Sun Simiao), the third year of Jiajing reign period of the Ming Dynasty (1524), Daozang edition

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Yunji Qiqian

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Yoga meditation system. This was also the period of emergence of various Buddhist sects and factions in China. But no matter what faction or sect, all stressed on Zen Buddhist practices. Indian Yoga through Zen Buddhism continuously advanced in China.

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Simultaneously, the Daoist borrowed heavily from the Buddhist meditation theories. For example, Sun Simiao (581-682 CE), famous as the legendary Chinese King of Medicine and Heavenly Doctor, in his *Qian jin yaofang* (*Essential Prescriptions Worth a Thousand in Gold*), *Yang xing* (*Nurturing the Body*), and *Tiao qifa* (*Methods of Prāṇāyāma/Adjust the Breath*) describes Buddhist "meditation methods". After its practice, this was considered to be an advanced method for breathing exercises. In the 7th chapter of the second volume of *Qian Jin Yao Fang*, there is also a mention of the "Massage Methods of Tianzhu country (India)" which, Sun Simiao notes, is "the Brahmanical method". This has been preserved until now and consists of a total of 18 kinds of steps, half of which relate to massage and the other half to physical exercises. It bears similarities with the present day Indian Yoga system. Spreading in China around the 6ᵗʰ century, it had far-reaching influence on the Chinese body strengthening massage techniques. The Daoist master, Sima Chengzhen (655-735 CE) wrote a book on self-cultivation and well-being entitled *Zuowanglun* [*Discourse on Sitting and Forgetting (Oblivion)*]. Its Volume One, explains "Peace of Mind and Oblivion Laws" as Buddhist meditation methods. It emphasises the importance of observation of qualities like: (i) Respect and Faith; (ii), Interception of Karma; (iii) Restraining the Mind; (iv) Detachment from Affairs; (v) True Observation; (vi) Intense Concentration; (vii) Realising the Dao/ Enlightenment. It also discusses problem of "discipline" and "wisdom" as well as methods of practicing *Xiao Zhi Guan* (*Beginner's Zen and the Little Samatha-Vipassyana Manual*) and other similar issues. Its appendix contains a text, *Dongxuan lingbao dingguanjing* (*Scripture on Concentration and *Observation of the Numinous Treasure from the Cavern Mystery*), the authorship of which is unknown. This also emphasises among other things “cultivation of discipline and wisdom” and obviously reflects continuing influence of Buddhist meditation techniques.

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Mural painting at the Shaolin monastery

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During the period of Northern Song, Zhang Junfang (late 10th to mid-11th century CE) collected several pre-10ᵗʰ century Daoist Qigong works for his compilation entitled *Yun Ji Qiqian* (*The Seven Tablets in a Cloudy Satchel*), which included articles like *Damo dashi zhushi liu xing nei zhen miao yong jue* (The Great Dharma Master's Truly Excellent Useful Formula for Living) written under a pseudonym. It was not at all connected with Master Dharma. It had terms like Western Country, Sakyamuni, but its content was primarily concerned with the Daoist embryonic breathing method with emphasis on Daoist self-cultivation techniques based on energy, breathing, supernatural spirit, etc., for well being and achieving harmony. This evinces the union of Buddhist and Daoist methods long time back. In ‘*Yun Ji Qiqian*’, there is also a chapter entitled "Xuan Jian Daoyin fa (Profound Mirror for Breathing Guidance Method), which describes the 13 breathing guidance treatise, wherein the first and fifth ones twice refers to Padmāsana. Paryanka-nibaddha-niṣadya (also mentioned in Vajradharma-Lokeśvara (as «Mayuropari... nisannam... sattvaparyaṅkam àbhujya») that refers to a Buddhist meditational posture. Such examples demonstrate the absorption of Buddhist postures into Daoist meditation.

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This is further exemplified in the works of a female alchemist of the legendary Seven Daoist Immortals, Sun Buer (c. 1119-1182 CE). She practiced inner alchemy and wrote a specialised text, ‘*Ten sisters*’ which advises health and fitness regimen for female. Its ninth Chapter entitled ‘*Nan Wu*’ (pronounced Namo in old pronunciation) describes methods “to attain Buddhahood in the present human form/ Tatkāya Buddha (adopted from a popular Daoist tale about some extra-ordinary human beings desiring to remain as bodhisattava until the liberation of all sentient being from suffering)”. This emphasises deep contemplation to imagine the world of South Sea’s (India) great sage, Bodhisattava Guanyin (Avalokiteshvara) in Mt. Putuo’s deep bamboo forest which portrays a “Red Boy” [referring to the Boy Sage King of Daoist tales as well as of ‘*Xiyuji* (*Journey to the West*’)] seated on the front seat of a Nanyang Dragon offering pearls, white parrots flying up and down "holding clean jars in the hand, moving through resisting branches of willow tree, obtaining natural nectar water, and (Guan Yin) meditating upright on a rock at Mt. Putuo, reciting, ‘*Om*’ according to the way of Goddess Tara located in the truly meaningful land”. This obviously demonstrates a practice of Tantric Buddhism incorporated as a form of Daoist Qigong by Sun Buer.

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At the same time, the Chinese Wushu achieved new heights. Incorporating many ideas and practices from Buddhism, monks propagated and spread it all over. Especially after the 6th century, the Shaolin temple gradually gained prominence in the Wushu circle. So much so that the Wushu came to be inextricably associated with the Shaolin Temple. According to legends, the Shaolin Wushu was introduced by the Indian monk Bodhidharma who not only popularised the practice of meditation, but also compiled classics like ‘*Yi Jin Jing*’ (Tendon-muscle strengthening Exercise Classic) and ‘*Xi Sui Jing*’ (Tendon Transformation and Marrow Purification Exercise Classic) to improve the ‘*Qi*’ (internal energy/spirit). This formed the basis for martial art techniques of “Dharma boxing” as well as sword and stick fighting (indicating a fusion of Yoga and Kalaripayattu). These old and prevalent legends are however based on some historically incorrect facts. The most reliable records of Shaolin Wushu are found on the stone tablets erected by Li Shimin (599-649 CE) during the fourth year of Tang Wude (621 CE). This indicates not only existence of monks in the temple but also their contribution in spreading the Shaolin Wushu throughout the world. In order to further develop Shaolin Wushu, a Fu-zhu monk (c. 10ᵗʰ century) invited many Wushu fighters and monks from all over the country during the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty (later half of 10th century). After intensive discussion and research in the Shaolin Temple, they created a new style of Wushu and some more techniques for self-cultivation and well-being techniques like "Ten Punches for the Golden Warrior", "Life Prolonging Powers", "Body Strenthning Methods", etc. During the middle of 13th century, a Shaolin monk Jueyuan (c. 13th century) travelled far and wide in search for teachers who could be invited to the Temple for a joint study and research to bring innovations and further enrich the Shaolin Wushu martial art.

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In addition to the Shaolin Wushu, the Sichuan Emei School of Wushu is also a part of the Buddhist kung fu. It developed later than the Shaolin School. It is said to be founded by Chan Master (Dhyānācārya) Baiyun during the later part of the Southern Song Dynasty (late 13th century). Emei Wushu is similar to Shaolin Wushu. It is also an amalgamation of quintessential technique of self-cultivation and well being of both Buddhist and Daoist schools. It upholds the tradition of Chinese Wushu and has developed through constant innovations.

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13ᵗʰ-20ᵗʰ century CE

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During this period, the Daoist classics on self-cultivation and well being still cites the Buddhist theory of the "Four Noble Truth". For example, ‘*Xin Ming Gui Zhi*’ [Principles of Balanced Cultivation of Inner Nature and Vital Force] compiled by a senior student of Master Yin Zhenren (identities of both are still unknown) describes exercise methods based on “Five Elements” and simultaneously also discusses "Four Noble Truth" for peace and harmony.

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*‘Daozang jinghua lu’*, the movable type edition on white paper dating from the Republican times in China

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The Ming Dynasty Daoist Master Yuan Huang (1533 –1606 CE) in his book *Three Essentials for Well-Being* especially refers to Zen masters’ theories of *Prāṇāyāma*. According to Zen masters, he writes, “*Prāṇāyāma* can be classified into four categories – cleansing breath, natural breathing, tortoise breathing, and holding the breath or embryonic breathing (referring to the pattern of breath in - hold the breath - breath out; breath in - breath out - hold the breath; breath in - hold the breath - breath in again - breath out; breath in - breath out - hold the breath - breath out again).

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Yi Jin Jing (Tendon-muscle strengthening Exercise Classic), legendarily attributed to *Bodhidharma* is recognised as a complete work on self-cultivation and well-being. The style of available text however indicates its formulation much later during the aforesaid period from 13ᵗʰ to 20ᵗʰ century. In Daoguang reign period of Qing Dynasty (1821 –

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*Indian yoga teacher teaching Chinese students*

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1850), Mayi Zhen (c. 19ᵗʰ century) published it in a journal as two classics, *Yi Jin* and *Xi Sui*. He wrote in the preface mentioning that these two classics are about preaching *dharma*. Though he has also procured ‘*Yi Jin Jing*’ and several other manuscripts, the content of the classics published in the journal is extremely profound and rich. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, Zhoushu Guan from Sichuan (late 19th century-early 20th century) on the basis of “Yi Jin Jing" again increased the potential of more techniques, and compiled the ‘*Zeng yan yi jin xi sui nei gong tushu (Supplementary practical illustrative book to cultivate Tendon, cleanse spinal marrow, and inner strength)’*. In 1893 autumn, he came to know the master of Hui Temple in Ziyang, who presented him a six-volume set of ‘*Zeng yi yijin xisui neigong tushu* (Supplementary beneficial illustrative book to cultivate Tendon, cleanse spinal marrow, and inner strength)’. Later Zhou Shuguan added further elaborations expanding it to 17 volumes, which greatly enriched the contents of the book.

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Presently too, the impact of Indian Yoga in China is increasing. In 1940s, a Chinese student, Xu Fancheng (Xu Hu) went to India and learned Yoga. After returning to China, she introduced it there and continuously practiced it for many years. By 1980s, more people in China had begun to take up the practice of Indian Yoga. Many of them pursued studies and research on Yoga and published illustrated books. Various programmes on television channels further promoted it. So much so that by 1990s, Yoga became a branded and fashionable physical exercise activity among the white-collar workers in China. There are now many Chinese people who go to India to study Yoga. Many Chinese cities have set up Yoga centres. Yoga classes have been included in the physical exercise curriculum. The Indian experts are invited to teach Yoga. Also, the Indian martial art form Kalaripayyattu has also caught the attention of the Chinese people. Its popularity in south India and linkages with Indian Buddhism as well as with Shaolin Kung fu make it very attractive to Chinese people and media.

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*Indian female students learning Chinese martial arts*

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Similarly, there is now greater interest in Chinese martial arts and Qigong in India. Many young Indians passionately follow the Chinese “kung-fu” from movies and television. Since 1980s, Indian scholars too have begun to study Chinese Qigong and make its comparison with the Indian Yoga. In 1990s, with greater inflow of young Chinese, many Indian students are learning Taiji from them. With the inclusion of the Chinese martial arts as an event in the Asian Games and the Olympics, several Wushu Associations and training centres have emerged in many places in India. The old Wushu Associations like the ones in Uttar Pradesh (in India) and other provinces have now many regular events and activities as well as closer linkages with such associations in China.

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