Cosmography and Geography in Early Indian Literature c8.s4: IV.—Extracts from Al-Birūni’s Kitabul Hind
Cosmography and Geography in Early Indian Literature c8.s4
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IV.—Extracts from Al-Birūni’s Kitabul Hind
c8.s4.1
¹⁴ See E. C. Sachau Alberuni's India, Vol. I, Chap. XVIII. (pp. 198ff). The vowel wāw has been transliterated as long o, the same as ū.
c8.s4.2
The middle of India is the country round Kanoj (Kānyakubja, Kanauj in the Farrukhabad District), which they call Madhya-deśa, i.e. the middle of the realms. It is the middle or centre from a geographical point of view, in so far as it lies half way between the sea and the mountains, in the midst between the hot and the cold provinces, and also between the eastern and western frontiers of India. But it is a political centre too, because in former times it was the residence of their most famous heroes and kings.
c8.s4.3
The country of Sindh (Sindhu) lies to the west of Kanoj. In marching from our country to Sindh, we start from the country of Nimroz, i.e. the country of Sijistan (Sakastān, Seistān), whilst marching to Hind or India proper we start from the side of Kābul. This, however, is not the only possible road. You may march into India from all sides, supposing that you can remove the obstacles in the way. In the mountains which form the frontier of India towards the west, there are tribes of the Hindus, or of people near akin to them—rebellious savage races—which extend as far as the farthermost frontiers of the Hindu race.
c8.s4.4
Kanoj lies to the west of the Ganges (Gaṅgā), a very large town, but most of it is now in ruins and desolate since the capital has been transferred thence to the city of Bāri, east of the Ganges. Between the two towns, there is distance of three to four days' marches.
c8.s4.5
As Kanoj (Kānyakubja) has become famous by the children of Pāṇḍu (sic), the city of Māhūra (Mathurā) has become famous by Vāsudeva. It lies east of the river Jaun (Yamunā). The distance between Māhūra and Kanoj is 28 farsakh.¹⁵
c8.s4.6
¹⁵ Sachau has shown that 1 farsakh or kuroh (krośa)=4 Arabian miles (2186 yards each)=about 3¾ English geographical miles (2025 yards each). Cf. ibid., Vol. II, p. 316.
c8.s4.7
Tāneshar (Sthāṇviśvara, Thānesar in the Ambala District) lies between the two rivers, to the north both of Kanoj and Māhūra, at a distance of nearly 80 farsakh from Kanoj, and nearly 50 farsakh from Māhūra.
c8.s4.8
The river Ganges rises in the mountains which have already been mentioned. Its source is called Gaṅgāvāra. Most of the other rivers of the country also rise in the same mountains, as we have already mentioned in the proper place....
c8.s4.9
A man marching from Kanoj to the south between the two rivers Jaun (Yamunā) and Ganges passes the following places :—Jajjamau, 12 farsakh from Kanoj, each farsakh being equal to four miles or one kuroh; Abhāpurī, 8 farsakh ; Kuraha, 8 farsakh ; Barhamshil (Brahmaśilā), 8 farsakh ; the Tree (akṣaya-vaṭa) of Prayāga, 12 farsakh, the place where the water of the Jaun joins the Ganges, where the Hindus torment themselves with various kinds of tortures, which are described in the books about religious sects. The distance from Prayāga to the place where the Ganges flows into the sea is 12 (sic—120) farsakh.
c8.s4.10
Other tracts of country extend from the Tree of Prayāga southward towards the coast : Arku-tīrtha, 12 farsakh from Prayāga ; the realm of Uwaryahār,¹⁶ 40 farsakh ; Ūrdabishau (Oḍra-viṣaya, Orissa) on the coast, 50 farsakh.
c8.s4.11
¹⁶ He is probably Caṇḍīhara alias Yayāti Mahāśivagupta III of the Soma-vamśa of South Kosala.
c8.s4.12
Thence along the coast towards the east there are countries which are now under the sway of Jaur (the Cola) ; first Daraur (Draviḍa for Andhra), 40 farsakh from Ūrdabishau ; Kãnjī (Kāñcīpura), 30 farsakh ; Malaya (Malabar), 40 farsakh ; Kunk (South Konkan), 30 farsakh, which is the last of Jaur’s possessions in this direction.
c8.s4.13
Marching from Bārī along the Ganges on its eastern side, you pass the following stations :—Ajodaha (Ayodhyā, Fyzabad District), 25 farsakh from Bārī ; the famous Banārasī (Vārāṇasī), 20 farsakh. Thence changing the direction and marching eastward instead of southward, you come to Sharwār, 35 farsakh from Banārasī ; Pāṭaliputra (near Patna), 20 farsakh ; Janpa (Campā), 30 farsakh ; Dūgumpūr, 50 farsakh ; Gangāsāyara (Gangāsāgara), 30 farsakh, where the Ganges flows into the sea.
c8.s4.14
Marching from Kanoj towards the east, you come to Bārī, 10 farsakh ; Dūgum, 45 farsakh ; the empire of Shilahat,¹⁷ 10 farsakh ; the town Bihat (modern Bettia), 12 farsakh. Farther on the country to the right is called Tilwat (Tirabhukti, Tirhut), the inhabitants Tarū, people of very black colour and flat-nosed like the Turks. Thence you come to the mountains of Kāmru (Kāmarūpa), which stretch away as far as the sea.
c8.s4.15
¹⁷ He is probably P.M.P. Sauryāditya of the Malayaketu family of Daradgaṇḍakī (in the Gandak valley), who issued charters in 1020 and 1026 A.D. (Ep. Ind., Vol. xxxv, pp. 130 ff.).
c8.s4.16
Opposite Tilwat the country to the left is the realm of Naipāl (Nepāla).
c8.s4.17
A man who had travelled in those countries gave me the following report: "When in Tanwat (Tirabhukti, Tirhut), he left the easterly direction and turned to the left. He marched to Naipāl, a distance of 20 farsakh, most of which was ascending country. From Naipāl he came to Bhoteshar (Bhoṭeśvara, Bhutan) in thirty days, a distance of nearly 80 farsakh, in which there is more ascending than descending country...
c8.s4.18
"Bhoteshar is the first frontier of Tibet. There the language changes as well as the costumes and the anthropological character of the people. Thence the distance to the top of the highest peak is 20 farsakh. From the height of this mountain, India appears as a black expanse below the mist, the mountains lying below this peak like small hills, and Tibet and China appear as red. The descent towards Tibet and China is less than one farsakh."
c8.s4.19
Marching from Kanoj towards the south-east, on the western side of the Ganges, you come to the realm of Jajāhūti (Jejākabhukti, Jajhotī in Bundelkhand), 30 farsakh from Kanoj. The capital of the country is Kajūrāha (Kharjūravāhaka, Khajurāho). Between this town and Kanoj there are two of the most famous fortresses of India, Gwaliyar (Gopagiri, Gwalior) and Kālanjar (Kālañjara in the Banda District). Dahāla (Dahāla),...a country the capital of which is Tiaurī (Tripurī in the Jabalpur District), and the ruler of which is now Gangeya (Kalacuri Gāṅgeya).
c8.s4.20
The realm of Kannakara (Karṇāṭaka), 20 farsakh : Apsūr, Banavās (Banavāsiin in the North Kanara District), on the sea-coast.
c8.s4.21
Marching from Kanoj towards the south-west, you come to Āsī, 18 farsakh from Kanoj; Sahanyā, 17 farsakh ; Jandrā, 18 farsakh ; Rājaurī (Rajorgadh in Alwar), 15 farsakh ; Bazāna (Bayānā in Bharatpur), the capital of Guzarat (Gurjaratrā, the land of the Gurjaras), 20 farsakh. This town is called Nārāyan by our people. After it had fallen into decay the inhabitants migrated to another place called Jadūra (Rājaurī).
c8.s4.22
The distance between Māhūra and Kanoj is the same as that betweeen Kanoj and Bazāna, viz. 28 farsakh. If a man travels from Māhūra to Ūjain (Ujjayinī), he passes through villages which are only five farsakh and less distant from each other. At the end of a march of 35 farsakh, he comes to a large village called Dūdahi (near Latitpur in the Jhansi District); thence to Bāmahūr, 17 farsakh from Dūdahi ; Bhāilsān (Bhāyillasvāmin, Bhilsa), 5 farsakh, a place most famous among the Hindus. The name of the town is identical with that of the idol worshipped there. Thence to Ardīn (Ujjayinī), 9 farsakh. The idol worshipped there is called Mahākāla ; Dhār (Dhārā), 7 farsakh.
c8.s4.23
Marching from Bazāna southward, you come to Maiwār (Mevāḍa), 25 farsakh from Bazāna. This is a kingdom the capital which is Jattaraur (Citrakūṭa, Cittaūḍa, Citoḍ). From this town to Mālavā and its capital, Dhār, the distance is 20 farsakh. The city of Ūjain lies 7 farsakh to the east of Dhār. From Ūjain to Bhāilasān, which likewise belongs to Mālavā, the distance is 10 farsakh.
c8.s4.24
Marching from Dhār southward, you come to Bhūmihara, 20 farsakh from Dhār; Kand, 20 farsakh; Namāvur (Nimāḍ) on the banks of the Narmadā (Narbadā), 10 farsakh; Alīspūr (Ellichpur), 20 farsakh; Mandagir (Nāndeḍ), on the banks of the river Godāvar (Godāvarī), 60 farsakh.
c8.s4.25
Again marching from Dhār southward, you come to the valley of Namiyya, 7 farsakh from Dhār; Mahratta-desh (Mahārāṣṭra-deśa), 18 farsakh; the province of Kunkan (the North Konkan), and its capital Tāna (Sthānaka, Ṭhāṇā) on the sea-coast, 25 farsakh.
c8.s4.26
People relate that, in the plains of Kunkan, called Dānak, there lives an animal called sharava (śarabha)...It has the shape of a buffalo, but is larger than a gaṇḍa (rhinoceros)...The gaṇḍa exists in large numbers in India, more particularly bout the Ganges...The Brahmins have the privelege of eating the flesh of the gaṇḍa......
c8.s4.27
Marching from Bazāna towards the south-west, you come to Anhilvāra (Aṇahilapura-pattana in Gujarat), 60 farsakh from Bazāna; Somanāth (Somanātha-apattana, Prabhāsa in Kathiawar), on the sea-coast, 50 farsakh.
c8.s4.28
Marching from Anhilvāra southward, you come to Lār-desh (Lāṭa-deśa), to the two capitals of the country, Bihroj (Bhṛgukaccha, Broach) and Rihanjūr, (Nausārī) 42 farsakh from Anhilvāra. Both are on the sea-coast to the east (sic—north) of Tāna.
c8.s4.29
Marching from Bazāna towards the west, you come to Mūltān (Mūlasthānapura) 50 farsakh from Bazāna; Bhāṭī, 15 farsakh.
c8.s4.30
Marching from Bhāṭī towards the south-west, you come to Aror, 15 farsakh from Bhāṭī, a township between two arms of the Sindh (Sindhu, Indus) river; Bamhawā (Brāhmaṇavāha, Bahmanābād) Almansūra, 20 farsakh; Loharāni, at the mouth of the Sindh river, 30 farsakh.
c8.s4.31
Marching from Kanoj towards the north-north-west, you come to Shirshāraha (Sirsa in the Hissar District), 50 farsakh from Kanoj; Pinjaur (in Patiala), 18 farsakh, situated on the mountains, while opposite it in the plain there lies the city of Tāneshar (Thanesar); Dahmāla, the capital of Jālandhar, at the foot of the mountains, 18 farsakh; Ballāwar (Vallāpura, Ballāvar, to the east of Jammu), 10 farsakh;
c8.s4.32
thence marching westward, you come to Ladda, 13 farsakh; the fortress Rājagiri (Rājapuri, Rājaurī), 8 farsakh; thence marching northward, you come to Kashmir, 25 farsakh.
c8.s4.33
Marching from Kanoj towards the west, you come to Diyāmau, 10 farsakh from Kanoj; Kutī, 10 farsakh; Ānār, 10 farsakh; Mīrat (Meerut), 10 farsakh; Pānipat (Karnal District), 10 farsakh— between the latter two places flows the river Jaun: Kawital (Kapiṣṭhala or Kapurthala; called Kaithal by later Muslim writers), 10 farsakh; Sunnām, 10 farsakh.
c8.s4.34
Thence marching towards the north-west, you come to Ādittahaur, 9 farsakh; Jajjanīr, 6 farsakh; Mandahūkūr, the capital of Lauhāwur (Lahore), east of the river Irāwa (Irāvatī, Rāvī), 8 farsakh; the river Candrāha (Candrabhāgā, Chenab), 12 farsakh; the river Jailam (Jhelam), west of the river Biyatta (Vitastā),¹⁸ 8 farsakh; Waihind (Udabhāṇḍa, modern Und near Attock), the capital of Kandhār (Gandhāra), west of the river Sindh, 50 farsakh; Purshāwar (Puruṣapura, Peshawar), 18 farsakh; Dunpūr, 15 farsakh; Kābul, 12 farsakh; Ghazna, 17 farsakh.
c8.s4.35
¹⁸ Vitastā and Jhelam are names of the same river, the lower course of which is specially called Jhelam.
c8.s4.36
Kashmir lies on a plateau surrounded by high inaccessible mountains. The south and east of the country belong to the Hindus, the west to various kings, the Bolar-Shāh and the Shugnān-Shāh, and the more remote parts up to the frontiers of Badhakhshān, to the Wakhān-Shāh. The north and part of the east of the country belong to the Turks of Khotan and Tibet. The distance from the peak of Bhoteshar to Kashmir through Tibet amounts to nearly 300 farsakh...
c8.s4.37
The best known entrance to Kashmir is from the town Babrahān, half way between the rivers Sindh and Jailam. Thence to the bridge over the river, where the water of the Kusnārī is joined by that of the Mahwī, both of which come from the mountains of Shamīlān, and fall into the Jailam; the distance is 8 farsakh. Thence you reach in five days the beginning of the ravine whence the river Jailam comes; at the other end of this ravine is the watch-station Dvār (Dvāra), on both sides of the river Jailam. Thence, leaving the ravine, you enter the plain, and reach in two more days Addishtān (Adhiṣṭhāna, Śrīnagar), the capital of Kashmir, passing on the road the village Ūshkārā (Huṣkapura or Huviṣkapura, modern Ushkur), which lies on both sides of the valley in the same manner as Baramūlā (Varāhamūla, Bārāmūlā).
c8.s4.38
The city of Kashmir (i.e. Addishtān) covers a space of four farsakh, being built along both banks of the Jailam, which are connected with each other by bridges and ferry-boats. The Jailam rises in the mountains Haramakot (Haramukuṭa, Haramukh), where also the Ganges rises, cold, impenetrable regions where the snow never melts nor disappears. Behind them there is Mahācīn, i.e. Great China. When the Jailam has left the mountains, and has flowed two days' journey, it passes through Addishtān. Four farsakh farther on it enters a swamp of one square farsakh. The people have their plantations on the borders of this swamp, and on such parts of it as they manage to reclaim. Leaving this swamp, the Jailam passes the town Ūshkārā, and then enters the above-mentioned ravine.
c8.s4.39
The river Sindh rises in the mountains Unang in the territory of the Turks, which you can reach in the following way: Leaving the ravine by which you enter Kashmir and entering the plateau, then you have for a march of two more days on your left the mountains of Bolor and Shamīlān, Turkish tribes who are called Bhattavaryān. Their king has the title Bhatta-Shāh. Their towns are Gilgit, Aswira, and Shiltās, and their language is the Turkish. Kashmir suffers much from their inroads. Marching on the left side of the river, you always pass through cultivated ground and reach the capital; marching on the right side, you pass through villages, one close to the other, south of the capital, and thence you reach the mountain Kulārjak, which is like a cupola, similar to the mountain Dunbāwand. The snow there never melts. It is always visible from the region of Tākeshar (Ṭakka) and Lauhāwar (Lahore). The distance between this peak and the plateau of Kashmir is two farsakh. The fortress Rājāgiri (Rājaurī) lies south of it, and the fortress Lahūr (Lohara) west of it, the two strongest places I have ever seen. The town Rājāwarī (Rājaurī) is three farsakh distant from the peak. This is the farthest place to which our merchants trade, and beyond which they never pass. This is the frontier of India from the north.
c8.s4.40
In the western frontier mountains of India there live various tribes of the Afghans, and they extend up to the neighbourhood of the Sindh valley.
c8.s4.41
The southern frontier of India is formed by the ocean. The coast of India begins with Tīz, the capital of Makrān, and extends thence in a south-eastern direction towards the region of Al-Daibal (near Karachi), over a distance of 40 farsakh. Between the two places lies the Gulf of Tūrān...
c8.s4.42
After the above-mentioned gulf follow the small Munha (Hindi muhānā), then the Bawārij, i.e. the pirates of Kacch and Somanāth. They are thus called because they commit their robberies on sea in ships called bira. The places on the coast are :—Tawalleshar, 50 farsakh from Daibal; Loharāni, 12 farsakh; Baga, 12 farsakh; Kacch, where the mukl-tree grows, and Bāroi 6 farsakh; Somanāth, 14 farsakh; Kanbāyat (Stambhatīrtha, Cambay), 30 farsakh; Asawil, 2 days; Bihroj (Broach), 30 (sic) farsakh; Sandān (Sañjān), 50 farsakh; Sūbāra (Sūrpāraka, Sopārā), 6 farsakh; Tāna (Thānā), 5 farsakh.
c8.s4.43
Thence the coast-line comes to the country of Lārān, in which lies the city of Jīmūr, then to Vallabha (Mānykheṭa), Kānji (Kāñcīpura), Darvad (Draviḍa). Next follows a great bay in which Singaldib (Siṃhala-dvīpa) lies, i. e. the island Sarandib (Ceylon). Round the bay lies the city of Pañjayāvar (Tañjavūr, Tanjore). When this city had fallen into ruins, the king Jaur (Cola), built instead of it, on the coast towards the west, a new city which he called Padnār.
c8.s4.44
The next place on the coast is Ūmmalnāra, then Rāmsher (Rāmeśvara) opposite Sarandīb; the distance of the sea between them is 12 farsakh. The distance from Pañjayāvar to Rāmsher is 40 (sic) farsakh, that between Rāmsher and Setubandha 2 farsakh. Setubandha means ‘bridge of the ocean’. It is the dike of Rāma, the son of Daśaratha, which he built from the continent to the castle of Laṅkā. At present it consists of isolated mountains between which the ocean flows. Sixteen farsakh from Setubandha towards the east (sic) is Kibkind (Kiṣkindhā, modern Anegundi in the Dharwar District), the mountains of the monkeys...
c8.s4.45
The eastern islands in this ocean, which are nearer to China than to India, are the islands of the Zābaj (Java, Yava-dvīpa), called by the Hindus Suvarṇa-dvīpa, i.e. the gold islands. The western islands in this ocean are those of the Zanj (Negroes), and those in the middle are the islands Ramm and the Diva islands (Maledīva, Laccadīva), to which belong also the Kumair islands... These islands are, according to their products, divided into two classes, the Diva-kūdha, i.e. the Diva of the cowrie-shells, because there they gather cowrie-shells from the branches of the coconut palms which they plant in the sea, and Diva-kanbār, i.e. the Diva of the cords twisted from coconut fibres, and used for fastening together the planks of the ships.
c8.s4.46
The island of Alwakwak belongs to the Kumair islands... the kinds of wood called mulamma and shauhat and the yellow sandal-wood are brought from the country of the Zanj (Negroes).
c8.s4.47
In former times there were pearl-banks in the bay of Sarandīb (Ceylon); but at present they have been abandoned. Since the Sarandīb pearls have disappeared, other pearls have been found at Sufāla in the country of the Zanj; so people say that the pearls of Sarandīb have migrated to Sufāla...¹⁹
c8.s4.48
¹⁹ Elsewhere Al-Bīrūnī gives the latitude and longitude (calculated from the coast of the Atlantic, that of Bagdad being 70°) of some of these places as follows: