Vedic Metre in its Historical Development c6: Chapter II

Vedic Metre in its Historical Development c6

Language: English

Chapter II

71. THE ‘popular Rigveda’ consists of hymns which contain about one-sixth part of the matter of the Rigveda, and are marked out from the remainder by differences of language, metre, and subject, and by their position in the collection. Of these hymns a large proportion are repeated in the first nineteen books of the Atharvaveda, often with slight differences in the arrangement of the stanzas and in phraseology: and in their general character these hymns can hardly be distinguished from the remaining verse portions of the Atharvaveda.

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72. The hymns which, according to the definition just given, plainly belong to the popular Rigveda are the following, those of which either the whole or more than one stanza is repeated in the Atharvaveda being distinguished by the affixed letter *a*:—

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i 23 16–18 *a*, 19–21 *a*, 22–24 *a*, 50 10–13 *a*, 162, 163 *a*, 164 *a*, 191 *a*; ii 32 6–8 *a*, 42, 43; iii 53 17–21, 22–23; iv 18, 57 4–8 *a*; v 40 5–9, 78 5–9; vi 28 1–7 *a*, 8 *a*, 47 26–28 *a*, 29–31 *a*, 74 *a*, 75 *a*; vii 50, 55 5–8 *a*, 59 12 *a*, 103, 104 *a*; viii 58, 59 6–7, 91 *a*; ix 5 8–11, 67 31–32, 112, 113, 114; x 9 6–7 *a*, 8–9 *a*, 10 *a*, 14 1–12 *a*, 13–16 *a*, 15 *a*, 16 1–10 *a*, 11–14 *a*, 17 *a*, 18 *a*, 19, 24 4–6, 34, 42 9–11 *a*, 56 4–7, 57 *a*, 58, 59 5–10, 60 7–12 *a*, 71, 72, 81, 82, 83 *a*, 84 *a*, 85 *a*, 86, 87 1–21 *a*, 88, 90 1–15 *a*, 16 *a*, 97 *a*, 98, 103 *a*, 107 *a*, 109 *a*, 114, 117, 121 *a*, 125 *a*, 128 *a*, 129, 130, 135, 136, 137 *a*, 142 7–8 *a*, 145 *a*, 146, 151, 152 *a*, 154 *a*, 155, 158, 159, 161 *a*, 162, 163 *a*, 164 *a*, 165 *a*, 166, 169, 173 *a*, 174 *a*, 177, 181–183, 184 *a*, 186, 189 *a*, 190, 191 2–4 *a*.

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Sufficient evidence in each case is indicated in the ‘Table of Hymns’ at the end of the book.

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73. In some hymns and fragments a doubt arises as to whether they should be referred to the popular Rigveda or not, either because the characteristic features of the two groups of hymns are mixed, or because they are almost or entirely wanting.

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Although hymns of this kind are on the whole fairly numerous, yet relatively they form only a small part of the Rigveda, and do not affect the broad contrast between the two groups.

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The difficulties that occur differ in kind according as they affect large or small amounts of matter.

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In the case of long hymns and collections of hymns characteristic features must necessarily occur with fair frequency, and difficulty only arises when the features of the opposite groups are found in the same hymn or collection. In such cases the general inference must be that the hymn or collection belongs to a transition period, as for instance the collections i 31—35, i 94—115, and those which extend generally from x 35 to x 84, which we have already assigned to the ‘cretic’ period (§ 61). Here the only real doubt is whether the transition period lies nearer to the one or the other of the two main groups: and this question is clearly one which should be reserved to a late stage of our enquiry.

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But in the case of short hymns, and still more in that of detached verses, characteristic features may be altogether wanting, or so scanty as to give room for the play of chance. If however we can group together in any way these shorter hymns and fragments, it is possible that a general character will come to light in the group as a whole. For example, the single Triṣṭubh stanzas appended to many hymns, taken together, resemble in character the Rigveda proper: whereas the corresponding Anuṣṭubh stanzas resemble the popular Rigveda. Such generalizations are often of use in determining roughly the position of the single stanzas, although the inference may not be finally justified in certain cases.

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In drawing up a definitive list of the hymns of the ‘popular Rigveda,’ we are going further than our general theory, strictly understood, permits us. In the first place the two groups of hymns are not sharply divided, but overlap. In the second place the evidence available, when analyzed, consists of probabilities only: and though the concurrence of many probabilities constitutes historical certainty, this concurrence is not existent in all details.

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Against this theoretical objection must be set the great practical convenience of a definitive list, in which the errors can only be relatively few. In order to deal with the doubtful hymns it will be desirable to review the evidence available.

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74. First in practical importance stand divergences of language, in which we include both grammar and vocabulary. These are so numerous that there are few stanzas in the Rigveda which do not contain one or two: and though the evidence of a small number of instances is not final, yet it is of great value in giving in almost all cases a first presumption as to the class to which a hymn belongs. In §§ 84—87 will be found lists of the distinctive linguistic features of each class of hymns, drawn up upon principles which are mainly mechanical, and therefore free from the influence of personal bias, though subject in detail to the occasional play of chance: and in the ‘Table of Hymns’ will be found stated the number of instances of each kind to be found in the hymns and stanzas, so far as it is necessary to treat them separately. It remains to consider how much importance can be attached to this kind of evidence in individual cases.

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75. An examination of the distinctive grammatical forms as a whole shews us that the hymns of the Rigveda proper record an earlier stage in the developement of the Sanskrit language; for they shew that multiplicity of form in the stem-formation and flexion both of nouns and verbs which marks the earlier history of all Indo-European languages. The unthematic flexional forms of nouns, and the extended use of the perfect, aorist, subjunctive, and infinitive systems in verbs are particularly conspicuous. On the other hand the language of the popular hymns, though enriched by certain sounds hardly known to the Rigveda proper, shews a tendency to uniformity, obtained by the steady progress of certain favoured types in destroying or assimilating their rivals.

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76. The differences of vocabulary lead directly to a somewhat different conclusion. Here divergence of style and subject-matter seem more prominent. Amongst the ‘popular’ words are a great number of Indo-European origin which must certainly have been familiar to the poets of the ‘Rigveda proper,’ though seldom used by them, having to do with the familiar objects and activities of ordinary life. Hence we are led to the contrast between the ‘heroic’ and the ‘popular’ language, and to the possibility that both may have been simultaneously in use for different purposes. Other words, however, support the inference of earlier date already drawn from the grammatical forms: nor is it possible to draw a line between the two classes, which are in practice associated in all the hymns in which they occur.

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77. As older words and forms may appear in later hymns either by direct imitation of particular models or by the unconscious effect of literary tradition, so the ‘popular’ words at least may find a place in the older hymns under the influence of some special subject-matter, and even later words and forms by anticipation of linguistic developements not yet established in literature. Amongst ourselves ‘Bible’ phraseology is still found in much current literature, whilst our lexicographers find many so-called ‘American’ neoterisms in early English records. In particular passages a minute criticism of the separate words and forms can lead to no practical result: and therefore in doubtful cases linguistic evidence seems to be of comparatively small importance. But in judging of large quantities of matter its cumulative weight is considerable; and this appears to make it certain that as a whole the popular Rigveda is really of later date.

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78. The evidence of metre is, on the whole, more cogent than that of language: for though the external form of older hymns may be occasionally imitated later, yet this would seem to be impossible as regards the rhythm: for the younger poet either did not appreciate the rhythms used by his predecessors, or desired to improve them. The characteristic metres of the popular Rigveda have been described, viz. the ‘epic’ Anuṣṭubh in all its stages (§ 41), and the ‘contamination’ of Triṣṭubh metre by Jagatī (§ 54). In Anuṣṭubh verse a single occurrence of a long 7th syllable in ‘semi-cadence’ is a decided indication of popular character, whilst the absence of a short 3rd syllable in several successive ‘reopenings’ is almost as significant. On the other hand too much stress must not be laid on single instances of contamination in trimeter verse, for these are not uncommon in the hymns assigned to the ‘cretic’ period.

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There seems every reason to suppose that the metres of the popular Rigveda are directly derived from those of the Rigveda proper, and consequently of later date.

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79. The repetition of a complete hymn or fragment, or even of any part of it beyond one stanza, in the Atharvaveda is a strong indication of the later date. It appears from the list in § 72 that more than one half of the hymns which clearly belong to the popular Rigveda are repeated with more or less completeness in the Atharvaveda: whilst of those hymns which clearly belong to the Rigveda proper only about a dozen are repeated, except by the quotation of single stanzas, viz. i 22 16—18, 19—21, 32, 50 1—9, 154; iv 2; v 46 7—8; vi 68 10—11; vii 32; viii 24; x 40. Single stanzas are drawn by the Atharvaveda from all parts of the Rigveda, but the repetition of such stanzas in the Atharvaveda is still of some weight, especially if they appear in the Rigveda to be detached from their context.

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80. To the position of hymns and fragments in the Saṃhitā text considerable importance is to be attached. As we observe that the hymns which plainly belong to the popular Rigveda are almost all found in certain positions, namely at the end of complete collections, or of the Agni or Indra sections of those collections, or in the tenth Maṇḍala: it follows that we are likely to find other hymns of the same character similarly placed. Hymns which disturb the mechanical arrangement of each collection also deserve careful examination. With regard to that arrangement it will be sufficient to refer to the full discussion by Professor H. Oldenberg (Prolegomena, Chapter II) as a starting point: but it must be kept in mind that many of the oldest hymns in the Rigveda are found either out of the order or in the tenth Maṇḍala, as is conclusively shewn by the language and metre.

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81. It is only when other indications fail that a consideration of the subject-matter of the poems becomes necessary. There is clearly a presumption that ‘hymns’ in the strict sense, that is poems in which the praise of the gods is the primary object, belong to the Rigveda proper: but this presumption fails when the deity is not known to or not homogeneous with the Pantheon of the Rigveda. So there is a presumption that ‘charms,’ that is poems in which the profit of the suppliant or the harming of his enemy is the primary object, belong to the popular Rigveda: but even amongst the early hymns we find a few in which relief from pains of conscience or disease is the main theme. Mythological narrations and dramatic dialogues are not entirely wanting in the Rigveda proper, though they are much more common later: whilst the converse appears to be true of poems with liturgical and ceremonial subjects. Philosophical and cosmogonical poems, and those which contain proverbs or riddles, are generally late.

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82. To discuss at any length the evidence affecting particular hymns would exceed the scope of this book, but there will be found in § 88 a list of all those hymns of the Rigveda with regard to which reasonable doubt seems to exist: and an asterisk is prefixed to those which appear to be more properly assigned to the popular Rigveda. The evidence of language and metre is given in the ‘Table of Hymns’ at the end of this book, and this table should also be consulted in each case.

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In those cases in which the evidence is not quite sufficient to justify us in assigning a hymn to the popular Rigveda, it will generally be probable that it is not very much earlier in date, and therefore that we may have reason to refer it later to some period other than that of the earliest literature, that is, either to the ‘normal’ or the ‘cretic’ period.

Linked texts (2)

Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Atharvavedasaṃhitā — Atharvan & Aṅgiras, Sanskrit