Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Pali Literature and Language c6: Part I. Pāli Literature

Pāli Literature and Language c6

Language
English

Contents

Part I. Pāli Literature

c6.2

Preliminary notice. 1. Previous works: J. d' Alwis, A descriptive Catalogue of Sanskrit, Pāli, and Sinhalese Literary Works of Ceylon, Colombo 1870.—H. Oldenberg, Catalogue of Pāli MSS. in the India Office Library, London 1882 (App. to JPTS. 1882).—L. de Zoysa, A Catalogue of Pāli, Sinhalese and Sanskrit MSS. in the Temple Libraries of Ceylon, Colombo 1885.—Catalogues of MSS.: JPTS. 1882, 50 ff.; 1883, 133 ff.; 1885, 1 ff.; 1888, 108 ff. Also Fausböll, Catal. of the Mandalay MSS. in the Ind. Off. Libr., JPTS. 1896 1 ff.

c6.3

2. Short surveys and descriptions of particular aspects: H. Kern, Manual of Indian Buddhism, Strassburg 1896, pp. 1-11.—Rhys Davids, Buddhism, London 1910, p. 18 ff. ; Buddhist India, London 1903, p. 140 ff.—E. Hardy, Der Buddhismus, Münster i. W. 1890, p. 159 f.—Winternitz, Die Religionen Indiens; Der Buddhismus in Bertbolet's Religionsgeschichtliches Lesebuch, 1911, p. 214 ff. Wickremasinghe, Catal. of the Sinhalese MSS. in the Brit. Mus., London 1900, Introd.—M. Bode, The Pāli Literature of Burma, London 1909.—S. Z. Aung, Abhidhamma Literature in Burma, JPTS. 1910-12, p. 112 ff.

c6.4

3. Comprehensive treatment in Winternitz, A History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, pp. 1-423, Calcutta 1933.—G. P. Malalasekera, The Pāli Literature of Ceylon, London 1928.—B. C. Law, History of Pāli Literature, 2 vols., London 1933. In view of these special treatises it is permissible for me to be very brief with the contents and the historical importance of the chief works. They are therefore a necessary supplement to the present work.

c6.5

An important source book is the Gandhavamsa, edited by Minayeff, JPTS. 1886, p. 54 ff. Index to it by M. Bode, Ibid. 1896, p. 53 ff.

I. The Canonical Literature

1. Origin and Authenticity of the Canon

c6.s1.t1.1

1. The Pāli canon is known under the name Tipiṭaka (Skr. Tripiṭaka), i.e., "Threefold basket," because it consists of three main parts: Vinaya-Piṭaka, Sutta-Piṭaka and Abhidhamma-Piṭaka. It is the canon of the Theravāda school which itself belongs to the Vibhajjavādins.¹ According to tradition, which on essential points is probably quite dependable,² its compilation began immediately after the death of Buddha about 483 B.C.,³ at the council of Rājagaha. It was further developed a hundred years later at the council of Vesālī, the chief cause of which was the cropping up of certain wrong views which were threatening to undermine monastic discipline. At the third council under king Asoka (264 to 227 B.C.)⁴ the canon in all its essential parts seems to have been brought to a formal completion.

c6.s1.t1.2

¹ On the relation between the two designations, see Oldenberg, Vin. I, p. XLI ff.; Geiger, Mahāvaṃsa transl., App. B, 14b.

c6.s1.t1.3

² The history of the councils is based mainly on CV. XI, LII = Vin. II, 284 ff.; Dpvs. Chap. 4-5. 54, 7.34 ff.; Mhvs. Chap. 3-5. Also Buddhaghosa's Samantapāsādikā, Introd. (Oldenberg, Vin. III. 283 ff.) and Sumaṅgalavilāsinī (ed. Rhys Davids and Carpenter, PTS. 1886 p 2 ff.). Further Geiger, Mhvs. transl., p. LI ff. For the history of the Pāli canon, cf. Oldenberg, Vin. I, p. XL ff.; Buddhistische Studien, ZDMG. 52, 1898, p. 613 ff.; Buddha^6, p. 84 ff.; Oldenberg and Rhys Davids, Vin. Texts I = SBE. XIII, Introd.; Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha I = SBB. II, Preface; Winternitz, A History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, 1 ff. (cf. literature given under f.-n. 1). More sceptical about the tradition are Minayeff, Recherches sur le Bouddhisme, trad. par Pompignan, Paris 1894; L. de La Vallée Poussin, Conciles Bouddhiques I, Le Muséon N. S. 6, 1905, p. 213 ff. (cf. I.A. 37, 1 ff., 81 ff.); Barth, Rev. de l'hist. des religions 5, 1882, p. 237 ff.; 28, 1893, p. 277 ff.; 42, 1900, p. 74 ff.; Sylv. Lévi, Les saintes écritures du Bouddhisme, Paris 1909, and particularly R. O. Franke, The Buddhist Councils, JPTS. 1908, p. 1 ff.; Dīghanikāya transl., 1918, p. XLII ff.

c6.s1.t1.4

³ For the sake of brevity I only refer to Winternitz, Ibid., p. 4, as well as the data given by me in Mhvs. transl., p. XXII ff.

c6.s1.t1.5

⁴ Kashi-Prasad Jayaswal (Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, N.S. IX, Nr. 8 and 9, p. 317 ff.) has calculated the year of Asoka's accession to the throne to be 276 B.C., and his coronation at 272 B.C..

c6.s1.t1.6

This council is specially associated with the formation of the Abhidhamma, for according to tradition, the Thera Tissa Moggaliputta is said to have recited at it the Kathāvatthuppakaraṇa. This book contains the refutation of 252 different wrong teachings and is included among the works of Abhidhamma.¹ The third council was also of importance on account of the resolution to send missions to neighbouring countries. The tradition is here supported in an interesting manner by epigraphical discoveries.² Mahinda (Skr. Mahendra), the son of king Asoka,³ went to Ceylon as the messenger of the teachings of Buddha. He brought to Ceylon the canon in its Theravāda form.

c6.s1.t1.7

¹ Mhvs. 5.278.

c6.s1.t1.8

² Cf. Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p 299 ff.; Geiger, Mhvs. transl., p. XIX f.

c6.s1.t1.9

³ According to the tradition recorded by Hiuen-thsang in the Si-yu-ki, Mahinda was Asoka's brother. Cf. St. Julien, Mém. sur les Contrées Occidentales par Hiouen-Thsang II. 140.

c6.s1.t1.10

2. The gradual formation of the canon may be imagined to have come about in the way, that in particular monastic orders the memories of the speeches and dialogues of the master were kept alive so far as they were known at all. Hence the introductory words *evam me sutam* "so have I heard." At larger gatherings, as at the councils, these particular contributions were examined and given monastic sanction in favourable cases. In this way the material grew up continually and was classified into particular collections. Such an origin of the canon renders it understandable that already at the beginning there was given the possibility of the formation of different schools.⁴ On the occasion of the second council, therefore, there arose in the church the schism of the Theravādins and the Mahāsāmghikas. The main body of the canon therefore should have been collected in the first two centuries after the death of Buddha. Titles such as *dhammakathika*, *peṭakin*, *suttantika*, *pañcanekāyika*⁵ occurring in inscriptions of the 3rd century B.C. prove that already at that time the canon must have been divided in the same manner as in later days. Of the seven texts which were specially recommended for study by king Asoka in Bhabra edict, four or five may be traced in the Pāli canon with tolerable certainty.¹ It is also very remarkable that the name of Asoka, who is so much praised in all Buddhist orders, has never been mentioned in the canon. The assumption is justified therefore that in Asoka's time the formation of the canon had been practically completed. In the first few centuries however the canon used to be handed down orally. The Tipiṭaka along with its commentary Aṭṭhakathā was fixed in writing, according to a notice in Dpvs. and Mhvs., which gives the impression of being quite trustworthy, only under king Vaṭṭagāmaṇi, *i.e.*, a few decades before the beginning of the Christian era.²

c6.s1.t1.11

⁴ The story of Purāṇa in CV.XI. 1. 11 (=Vin. II, 289 f.) is very important in this respect. Purāṇa comes to Rājagaha where Buddha's disciples had assembled after his death. He is asked to take part in the council but he courteously declines saying that he would prefer to adhere to what he had himself heard from the Master's lips.

c6.s1.t1.12

⁵ Cf. Hultzsch, ZDMG. 40.58; Bühler, Epigraphia Indica II. 98; Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 167 f.; Winternitz, op. cit., p. 13 ff

c6.s1.t1.13

¹ *E.g.*, Ariyavāsā = D. III. 269 ff., Anāgatabhayāni = A. III. 105-108, Muni-gāthā = Sn. 207-221 (ed. D. Anderson and H. Smith), Moneyyasutta = A.I. 273, Lāgbulovāda = M. I. 414-420. For literature on this point, see Winternitz, op. cit. p. 16 ff.

c6.s1.t1.14

² Dpvs. 20.20-21; Mhvs. 33.100-101.

c6.s1.t1.15

3. Many peculiarities of the Pāli canon may be understood only if the way in which it came about is kept in view and it is remembered that it was handed down orally for nearly four hundred years. As the contributions to the canon came from different places at different times various contradictions could not be avoided, as has been pointed out by R. O. Franke.³ We can thus also understand the schematic character of the canon and the numerous repetitions occurring in it. It is in the nature of an oral tradition that events and situations of common occurrence should be described in stereotyped form in the same words.⁴ Much of what repeatedly occurs in the text was without doubt compulsory for the monks to learn. I consider as such the continually repeated synonymous expressions, the discussions in question and answer which almost look like formularies for the examinations which the monks had to pass,⁵ the parables and similes, and the mnemonic verses. It has to be pointed out however that apparently even from the beginning the sacred texts were used for purposes of preaching.⁶ Under such circumstances it was unavoidable that those texts which were familiar to every Bhikkhu should again and again thrust themselves into the sacred tradition. Of particular importance is the fact that not at all very seldom in one and the same collection two or more pieces follow each other having absolutely the same contents and wording, distinguished merely by the names of persons and places.¹ It is clear that in these cases we have to do with differences in tradition dating from the very beginning. When the collection of individual pieces began, the redactors quite naively arranged the variants one after another without trying to solve the problem of their authenticity. And finally, also the influence of purely literary activity might not have been quite negligible when the collections were compiled and written down. It is clear that the main tendency was to offer the material in as full a form as possible. It is not at all surprising therefore that from collections which were already existing whole pieces were taken into new collections whenever there seemed to be a sufficient reason to do so.² It however remains unknown which of the various forces was most potent in any particular case, and it is not at all unlikely that this question will never be solved satisfactorily.

c6.s1.t1.16

³ JPTS. 1908, p. 2 ff.; WZKM. 24,17 ff.; Dīghanikāya transl., p. XLIX.

c6.s1.t1.17

⁴ Thus, for instance, the greetings (M. I. 16¹⁶, 40¹²; D. I. 159³, 161³, etc.), the concluding words after a religious instruction (Vin. I. 16³¹, D. I. 85⁷, M. II. 89¹⁷, S. I. 70⁶, etc.), or the description of the various stages of the jhāna (Childers, P. Dict., sub voce), etc.

c6.s1.t1.18

⁵ Cf., for instance, the series *tam kiṃ maññatha, cakkhuṃ niccaṃ vā aniccaṃ vā*? etc. M. III, 271 ff., 277 ff.; S. IV. 105 ff., etc.

c6.s1.t1.19

⁶ Recitation of such particular pieces is regarded as something self-evident in Dpvs. 8.6 ff., 12.84 ff., 13.7 ff.; Mhvs. 12.29 ff., 14.58 and 68, 15.4 ff. (the Bālapanditasuttanta mentioned in Mhvs. 15.4 = Dpvs. 13.13 = M.III. 163 ff.; wrongly Mhvs. trans. (p. 97, f.-n. 2). Cf. further, DhCo. I. 129 ff.

c6.s1.t1.20

¹ Thus, for instance, Sutta 124, 125, 126 in S. IV. 109 f.; also Sutta 191, 192 = S. IV. 182 ff. Cf. further S.I. 220-222 with 224, etc.

c6.s1.t1.21

² Cf. the Sāmaññaphalasuttanta in D. I. 71 ff. with the Mahāassapura and the Mahāsakuludāyi-suttanta in M.I. 274 ff., II. 15 ff. The Selasuttanta occurs in Sn., p. 102 ff. and M. II. 146—in the latter perhaps interpolated later, for the preceding Suttanta deals with the same subject.

c6.s1.t1.22

4. It will be clear from what has been said above, in what sense we can speak of the authenticity of the canon. None will claim to day that all that is contained in it is derived from Buddha himself. But without doubt it contains a mass of utterances, speeches and teachings of the Master, as they were impressed on the memory of the disciples in their more or less accurate form. It is however impossible to read, *e.g.*, the Mahāparinibbāṇasutta,³ without getting the impression that here we are confronted with the actual reminiscences of the last days of the Master. Other texts, on the other hand, might be imitations of existing types, which were at least impregnated with the spirit of Buddha. Others again are purely monastic fiction. Such is the case, for instance, when in the Vinaya all the individual regulations about monastic discipline are attributed to the Master. Here too the formulated laws were modelled after certain types. But, on the other hand, we should not be too sceptical. The main body of the canon had at all events come into being in the first two centuries after the death of Buddha—at a time when the memory of the master might have been still fresh.¹ And we have indeed no reason to doubt the honest intention of the Bhikkhus. If we always keep in view the fundamental difference between the Greek and the Indian mode of thought, then it may perhaps yet be said that the picture of Buddha stands out of the Pāli canon in the same way as that of Socrates out of the writings of Xenophon and Plato.

c6.s1.t1.23

³ D. II. 72 ff.

c6.s1.t1.24

¹ Sometimes the canonical works themselves betray the fact that they were composed long after Buddha. Thus, already in the Theragāthās, when Pārāpariya (v. 920-948) complains about the degeneration of discipline within the monastic order. In Petavatthu IV. 3.1 is mentioned a King of Suraṭṭha, named Piṅgalaka. According to the commentary (PvCo. p. 244) he should have lived two hundred years after the death of Buddha. This should give us however the lowest time limit, excepting of course occasional later additions. ² For the meaning of the word Piṭaka, see Winternitz, op. cit., p. 8, f.-n. 8. ³ DCo. I. 22 ff.; DhsCo., p. 25 ff. ; Sārasamgaha, ed. Somananda, p. 86 ff.; Dpvs. 4.15; Gdhvs., JPTS. 1886, p. 55 ff. The nine Aṅgas are mentioned also in the canon itself : M.J. 183²⁴, A. II. 7², 103¹⁰, 108⁴, Vin. III. 8⁷, Pu. 48²⁹. ⁴ According to the records of northern Buddhism there are twelve Aṅgas. Wassilieff, der Buddhismus I, p. 109; Burnouf, Introd. sur le Bouddhisme, p. 51 ff.; Kern, Manual of Ind. Buddhism, p. 7. ⁵ Childers, PD. under these words.

2. Classification of the Pāli Canon, Editions, Translations

c6.s1.t2.1

5. Beside the division of the canon into three Piṭakas "baskets"² the tradition of southern Buddhism knows also other divisions of the canon.³ Thus 1. the division into five Nikāyas consisting of the first four Nikāyas of the Sutta-Piṭaka (D., M., S., A.), as well as the Khuddaka-Nikāya which in this connection comprehends also Vinaya and Abhidhamma.—2. The division into nine Aṅgas⁴ is only formal. They are Sutta, Geyya, Veyyākaraṇa, Gāthā, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Jātaka, Abbhutadhamma and Vedalla.⁵ By "Sutta" is meant all the dialogues of Buddha along with some pieces out of the Suttanipāta. All pieces composed in mixed prose and verse are called "Geyya." The "Veyyākaraṇa" includes the Abhidhamma and some other texts. “Gāthās” are pieces composed solely in verse. The titles “Udāna,” “Itivuttaka” and “Jātaka” will come up again for discussion below as parts of the Khuddaka-Nikāya. The Suttas which deal with supernatural conditions and powers are called “Abbhutadhamma.” The meaning of the title “Vedalla”¹ is not clear.—Finally, from quite a mechanical point of view, the canon is divided into 84,000 Dhammakkhandhas,² *i.e.*, individual pieces or lectures.

c6.s1.t2.2

¹ In the list of Aṅgas in northern Buddhism, Vaipulya corresponds to Vedalla. But there is also a northern Buddhist work Vaidalya. Schiefner, Tāranātha’s Gesch. des Buddhismus in Indien, p. 302.

c6.s1.t2.3

² Childers, PD. under the word.

c6.s1.t2.4

6. Editions: 1. The edition in Siamese script printed in Bangkok at the cost of King Chulalongkorn in 39 vols. in which are still wanting the Jātakas, Avadāna, Vimāna- and Petavatthu, Thera- and Therīgāthā, Buddhavamsa, Cariyāpiṭaka. A monumental new edition of the whole Tipiṭaka in 45 vols. was executed by the late King of Siam (in Siamese script, printed in Bangkok).

c6.s1.t2.5

2. The Rangoon Edition of the “Hanthawaddy Printing Works” in Burmese script (not available to me), 20 vols., containing Vinaya- and Abhidhamma-Piṭaka, as well as the Dīgha-Nikāya of the Sutta-Piṭaka.³

c6.s1.t2.6

³ Lanman, Pali Book Titles, Proc. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, XLIV, No. 24. 1909, p. 667.

c6.s1.t2.7

3. Editions of individual texts, printed in Sinhalese script in Ceylon: Dīgha-Nikāya published by W. A. Samarasekara, Colombo 1904 f. (see JPTS. 1912, p 142); Majjhima-Nikāya, Colombo 1895 ff. (JPTS. 1912, p. 147); Saṃyutta-Nikāya, ed. B. Amarasiṃha, Welitara 1898 ff. (JPTS. 1912. p. 150); Aṅguttara-Nikāya, ed. Devamitta, Colombo 1893 ff. (JPTS. 1912, p. 137).

c6.s1.t2.8

4. Individual texts published by the Pali Text Society in Roman characters comprehending most of the texts of the Sutta and Abhidhamma Piṭaka. See below. Oldenberg’s edition of the Vinaya, Fausböll’s edition of the Jātakas are special supplements.

c6.s1.t2.9

Translations of individual texts by Rhys Davids, Oldenberg, Franke, K. E. Neumann, Dutoit, etc., have been mentioned below. There are moreover: T. W. Rhys Davids, Buddhist Suttas I, SBE. XI.—K. E. Neumann, Buddhistische Anthologie, Texte a. d. Pâli- Kanon übers., Leiden 1892.—Warren, Buddhism in Translations (also non-canonical texts), Harvard Or. Ser. III, Cambridge Mass. 1896.—Dutoit, Leben des Buddha, eine Zusammenstellung aller Ber. a. d. kanon. Schriften der südl. Buddhisten, Leipzig 1906.—Winternitz, Die Religionen der Inder: der Buddhismus (Bertholet's Religionsgeschichtl. Lesebuch, separate edition), Tübingen 1911.—H. Oldenberg, Reden des Buddha, München 1922—K. Seidenstücker, Pāli Buddhismus in Übersetzungen, München-Neubiberg 1923.

3. Vinaya-Piṭaka

c6.s1.t3.1

7. The Vinaya-Piṭaka¹ contains the monastic rules of the order of Buddhist monks. It consists of the following parts:

c6.s1.t3.2

¹ The Vinaya-Piṭakam, one of the principal Buddhist holy Scriptures in the Pāli Language, ed. H. Oldenberg, 5 vols., London 1879-83.—Vinaya Texts, transl. by T. W. Rhys Davids and H. Oldenberg, part I, II, III (=SBE. XIII, XVII, XX), London 1881-85.—For the Gāthās occurring in the Vin. see R. O. Franke, WZKM. 24. 1 ff. On the whole problem, see Winternitz, op. cit., pp. 21 ff.

c6.s1.t3.3

1. Suttavibhaṅga: (a) Pārājika, (b) Pācittiya;
2. Khandhaka: (a) Mahāvagga, (b) Cullavagga.
3. Parivāra.

c6.s1.t3.4

1. The Suttavibhaṅga is based on the Pātimokkha.² This is very probably one of the oldest texts, containing the formulary for the ceremony of confession, as it was performed on Uposatha-days in the monastic orders. The SV. is a commentary on this text. The individual transgressions are divided into categories in the order of their seriousness: pārājikā dhammā entailing excommunication from the order, saṃghādisesā dh., aniyatā dh., then pācittiyā dhammā, pāṭidesaniyā dh., sekhiyā dh. In SV. a story is always given at first stating when the particular transgression was committed for the first time. Then follows in the words of the Pātimokkha the respective regulation for the expiation of the transgression, as well as a philological explanation of it and a casuistic discussion of individual cases and possibilities. To the Mahāvibhaṅga meant for the monks there is added at the end of the SV. also a Bhikkhunīvibhaṅga of similar character.—2. The Khandhakas represent the positive counterpart to the SV. They contain the regulations which determine the course of life within the monastic order. The Mahāvagga consists of the first ten Khandhakas. Its introductory chapter gives a history of the time, from the Sambodhi to the founding of the first Saṅgha in Benares. The Cullavagga is but the continuation of the MV. At its end are added two supplementary Khandhakas (XI and XII) which contain the story of the first two Councils. Closely connected with the Khandhakas are the kammavācā, which are formularies for the various acts of the Church to be undertaken by the order. Seven such formularies are known, of which the upasampadā-kammavācā, the formulary for the ceremony of the initiation of a member into the order, is still much used among the southern Buddhists.¹ All the kammavācā known to us agree with the corresponding regulations of the Khandhakas, which are themselves only a collection of such formularies with more detailed explanation and justification.—3. The Parivāra, consisting of nineteen sections, is of later origin. In all probability it was originated only in Ceylon. This is certain of the introductory verses.² It is a manual of instruction about the contents of the Vinaya—a mātikā (table of contents) without any value of its own.

c6.s1.t3.5

² Minayeff, Prātimoksha Sūtra, St. Petersburg, Akad. 1869; Dickson, The Pātimokkha, JRAS. 1875, p. 1 ff. Translation in Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, VT. I. 1 ff. Cf. Ibid., p. X ff., as well as the discussions about the relation between the Pāt. and SV. in Oldenberg, Vin. I, p. XV ff.

c6.s1.t3.6

¹ F. Spiegel, Kammavakya, Palice et Latine ed. Cf. further Dickson, JRAS. VII, N. Ser., p. 1 ff ; Baynes, JRAS. 1892, p. 68 ff.; Bowden, JRAS. 1893, p. 159 ff. Seven Kammavācās have been printed by Frankfurter, Handbook of Pāli, p. 141 ff. and Takakusu, Pali Chrestomathy, p. 40 ff Cf. also Rhys Davids (and Clauson), JPTS. 1907, 1 ff.

c6.s1.t3.7

² It is said in it of Mahinda and the other messengers that they came "hereto" (idha i.e., to Ceylon), and then a number of famous Theras of the island are mentioned, including even Ariṭṭha, the nephew of king Devānaṃpiyatissa, Mhvs. 19.66.

4. Sutta-Piṭaka

c6.s1.t4.1

8. To the Sutta-Piṭaka belong firstly the first four Nikāyas—Dīgha-, Majjhima-, Saṃyutta and Aṅguttara-Nikāya. They are the "collections" of Suttas or Suttantas, i.e., of speeches and dialogues of Buddha, or occasionally of his first disciples with their followers. Their form is prose sprinkled with verses. The individual Suttas vary according to the place and time of their origin. Instead of nikāya also the term āgama³ is used: Dīghāgama, etc. This is the expression universally used in northern Buddhist literature. The Sutta-Piṭaka is the chief source of our knowledge of the dhamma. It is therefore often directly called dhamma as opposed to vinaya.¹

c6.s1.t4.2

³ Childers, PD., sub voce.

c6.s1.t4.3

¹ On the importance of the SP., cf. Rhys Davids, Buddhism (Amer. Lect. on the Hist. of Religions), p. 59.

c6.s1.t4.4

9. 1. The Dīgha-Nikāya "long collection" contains the longest Suttas.² As a collection it was complete already at a very early time, the Brahmajalasutta of D. is quoted in Samyutta-Nikāya IV. 286¹². R. O. Franke³ wanted to prove that the D. is a "homogeneously conceived literary work" and "a ho [sic] is work of some literatus." This is certainly wrong.⁴ Suc [sic] a [sic] w [sic] militates against the fact that also inside the D. there are foun [sic] con [sic] adictions just as in the canon taken as a whole. The external relations which Franke⁵ has proved to exist between individual Suttas only explain why a particular Sutta came to occupy a particular place in the collection. Nothing more can be inferred from them. A peculiar importance attaches to the 16. Sutta of the D., the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta,⁶ a running description of the events of the last weeks of the life of Buddha.—The number of Suttas in D. is 34; it is divided into three parts (Vagga): Silakkhandhavagga (1-13), Mahāvagga (14-23), Pāṭikavagga (24-34).

c6.s1.t4.5

² The Dīgha-Nikāya, ed. Rhys Davids and Carpenter, 3 vols., London, PTS. 1890, 1903, 1911.—Translations: T. W. Rhys Davids and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, transl., Parts I, II. London 1899, 1910. = SBB. II, III (Suttas 1-23); K. E. Neumann, Reden Gotamo Buddho's, aus der längeren Sammlung Dīghanikāyo des Pali-Kanons übers. Bd I, II, München 1907, 1912; R. O. Franke, Dīghanikāya, das Buch der langen Texte des Buddh. Kanons in Ausw. übers., Göttingen und Leipzig 1913.—On the Gāthās in D., cf. R. O. Franke, JPTS. 1909, pp. 311-384.

c6.s1.t4.6

³ D. übers., pp. XXX, XLII. Cf. also by the same author: Das einheitliche Thema des Dīganikāya, WZKM. 27. 198 ff.

c6.s1.t4.7

⁴ Franke's theory has been rejected not only by me (D. Literaturztg. 1914, No. 26, col. 1687 f.) but also by C. A. F. Rhys Davids (JRAS. 1914, p. 467), as wel [sic] as by H. Oldenberg (Archiv f. Religionswissensch. 17.627).

c6.s1.t4.8

⁵ ZDMG. 67.409 ff.

c6.s1.t4.9

⁶ Translated by Rhys Davids, SBE. XI, p. 1 ff., SBB. III, p. 71 ff.; Dutoit, Leben des Buddha, p. 221 ff.; K. E. Neumann, Die letzten Tage Gotamo Buddho's, München 1911; R. O. Franke, D. übers., p. 179 ff. On the relations between this Sutta and the Avadānaśataka of the Nepalese tradition, see Speyer, ZDMG. 53. 121 ff.

c6.s1.t4.10

2. The Majjhima-Nikāya "middle collection" contains Suttas of middle length.⁷ Their value is very unequal; some (e.g., Nr. 82, 83, 93) belong to the most beautiful pieces in the canon.—The number of Suttas in M. is 152, divided into three groups of fifty (paṇṇāsa): Mūlapaṇṇāsa (1-50), Majjhimapaṇṇāsa (51-100), Uparipaṇṇāsa (101-152). As in the case of D., in M. too R. O. Franke would recognise no collection but an artificial literary work (schriftstellerisch verfasstes Werk), to which the Suttanipāta stands in relation of dependence.' ¹

c6.s1.t4.11

⁷ The Majjhima-Nikāya, Vol. I ed. Trenckner, Vols. II, III ed. Chalmers, London, PTS. 1886, 1898, 1899.—Translation: K. E. Neumann, Reden Gotamo Buddho's aus der mittl. Samml. Majjhimanikāyo des Pali-Kanons übers., 3 vols., Leipzig 1896-1902.—On the Gāthās in M., cf. R. O. Franke, WZKM. 26. 171 ff.

c6.s1.t4.12

¹ R. O. Franke, Die Zusammenhänge der Majjhimanikāya-Suttas, ZDMG. 68. 473 ff.; Majjhimanikāya und Suttanipāta, WZKM. 28. 261 ff.

c6.s1.t4.13

10. The third and fourth Nikāyas are more pronouncedly later and supplementary collections. In extent they considerably exceed D. and M.—3. The Saṃyutta-Nikāya ² gets its designation from the fact that its Suttas are grouped together (saṃyutta) according to their contents. The Sakka-Saṃyutta, for instance, contains those Suttas in which the god Sakka plays a rôle, the Bojjhaṅga-Saṃyutta is composed of those pieces in which the seven "elements of the highest knowledge" are discussed, ³ etc. The most famous Sutta in S. is the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta, which contains the first sermon of Buddha with which he began his career as a world teacher.⁴—The number of Saṃyuttas is 56, and that of the Suttas 2,889; the whole is divided into 5 parts (vagga).

c6.s1.t4.14

² The Saṃyutta-Nikāya of the Sutta-Piṭaka, ed L. Feer, 5 vols, London, PTS. 1884-98; Vol. VI Indexes by Mrs. Rhys Davids, 1904.—German translation by Wilhelm Geiger, München Neubiberg, I, 1930; II, 1925.—The Book of the Kindred Sayings (Saṃyutta N.) trans. by Mrs. Rhys Davids and F. Woodward, 5 vols., London 1917-30.

c6.s1.t4.15

³ S. I. 216 ff.; V. 63 ff.

c6.s1.t4.16

⁴ S. V. 420 ff. = Vin. I. 10 ff.

c6.s1.t4.17

4. The Aṅguttara-Nikāya (literally: "by-one-limb-more-collection")⁵ is divided into 11 sections (nipāta). They are called Eka-Nipāta "section of one," Duka-Nipāta "section of two," etc., up to Ekādasa-Nipāta "section of eleven." Every section contains Suttas dealing with subjects which are in some way or other connected with the number of the corresponding section. The first Sutta in the Eka-Nipāta, for instance, deals with the one, which more than anything else darkens the mind of man, that is, woman. The section of five begins with Suttas ⁶ which deal with the pañca sekhabalāni, etc. Various combinations are resorted to in the Nipātas of higher designations for which no corresponding subject could be found. Thus Sutta 28 of the "section of nine" is made of 5+4, Sutta 11 of the "section of eleven" of 3+3+3+2, etc.¹ In this scholastic method of grouping of subjects the A. resembles the Abhidhamma.—The number of Suttas is at least 2,308; the Nipātas are divided into vaggas containing as a rule 10 Suttas each. The largest number of Suttas contained in a vagga is 262; the lowest number is 7.

c6.s1.t4.18

⁵ The Aṅguttara-Nikāya, Vols. I, II, ed. Morris, London, PTS 1885, 1888; Vols. III-V, ed. E. Hardy, Ibid., 1896-1900; Vol. VI, Indexes by M. Hunt, 1910. Cf. Leumann, GGA. 1899. Nr. 8, p. 585 ff.—Translations: B. Ñāṇatiloka, Reden des Buddha, a. d. Aṅguttara-Nikāya, übers. und erl., 5 vols., München-Neubiberg 1928 ff.

c6.s1.t4.19

⁶ A. III. 1 ff.

c6.s1.t4.20

¹ A. IV. 407, V. 326.

c6.s1.t4.21

11. The 5th Nikāya of the Sutta-Piṭaka is the Khuddaka-Nikāya "the collection of short pieces." It contains texts of the most diverse characters, and it is significant that among the Buddhists of Ceylon, Burma and Siam there is no complete agreement as to the pieces belonging to it. In Ceylon Khuddaka-Nikāya is considered to consist of: 1. the Khuddakapāṭha,² a collection composed of only 9 short Sutta-like pieces. It is clearly a prayer book of daily use. Three of the Suttas (Nrs. 5. 6, 9) occur also in Suttanipāta. Quite popular in character is the Tirokuḍḍasutta (Nr. 7) which deals with the Petas, the departed souls. It bears the character of a magic hymn. Particular verses out of it are still recited in Ceylon and Siam on the occasion of the cremation of dead bodies, as is reported by Seidenstücker.—2. The Dhammapada³ is a collection of 423 memorial verses—a famous anthology of Indian Spruchweisheit. According to contents it is divided into 26 parts (vagga). Sometimes several consecutive verses form one close group—a small poem in itself. More than half the verses may be found also in other canonical texts. The compiler of the Dh. however certainly did not depend solely on these canonical texts but also made use of the great mass of pithy sayings which formed a vast floating literature in India.—3. The Udāna⁴ is a collection of solemn sayings of Buddha, mostly in metrical form. Accompanying stories in prose give the occasions on which they were uttered. Altogether we have 82 stories divided into 8 parts (vagga).—4. The Itivuttaka ¹ "Thus-has-been-said" closely resembles the Udāna. It contains the Master's sayings on morality. The number of the individual pieces, which are composed in a mixture of prose and verse, is 112. They are called Suttas and they either repeat the same thoughts at first in prose and then in verse, or in such a manner that the portions in prose and verse supplement each other. Like A. the Iv. is divided into Nipātas (Eka-, Duka-, Tika-, Catukka-Nipāta), and the latter are again divided into vaggas.

c6.s1.t4.22

² Khuddaka Pāṭha, by R. A. Childers, JRAS., N.S. IV, 1870, p. 309ff.; Khuddaka-Pāṭho, Kurze Texte ... übers. u. erl. von Seidenstücker, Breslau 1910. Cf. 17.

c6.s1.t4.23

³ Dhammapadam ... Palice ed., Latine vert. ... V. Fausböll, 1855; new edition by same, London 1900. Of translations I mention the English one by M. Müller (SBE. X, Part I, Oxford 1881, new edition 1898) and the German ones by L. von Schroeder ("Worte der Wahrheit"), Leipzig 1892, and Dhamma-Worte, verdeutscht von R. O. Franke, Jena 1923. Further literature in Winternitz, pp. 80-84.

c6.s1.t4.24

⁴ Udānam, ed. P. Steinthal, London PTS. 1885. The Udāna ... transl. by Strong, London 1903. Udāna, German translation by K. Seidenstücker, Augsburg 1920.

c6.s1.t4.25

¹ Iti-Vuttaka, ed. E. Windisch, London, PTS 1889; Sayings of the Buddha, the Iti-Vuttaka, transl. by J. H Moore, New-York 1908; Itivuttaka, German translation by K. Seidenstücker, Leipzig 1921. On the text, cf. Moore, JPTS 1906-7, p. 176 ff.

c6.s1.t4.26

12. 5. The Suttanipāta ² of the Khuddaka-Nikāya is very archaic in character. Its first four parts (vagga) consist of 51 pieces; the 5th, called Pārāyaṇavagga, is a running poem in 18 sub-sections, and it contains the questions which the 16 disciples of Bāvari ask Buddha, as well as their answers. Some pieces of the Sn. are like Ākhyāna-poems in character. Narrative stanzas sometimes alternate in them with dialogue-stanzas, as for instance in the Nālakasutta (III. 11), or, as in the Selasutta (III. 7), the speeches are in verse and the introductory or connecting portions in prose.—6. Vimānavatthu ³ and 7. Petavatthu ⁴ belong to the later and the least happy parts of the canon. Their later origin—perhaps a short time before the third council—is proved less by their contents than by their language which is not always impeccable, the mention of Piṅgalaka, ⁵ etc. The Vimānavatthu describes the grandeur of celestial palaces, in which the Devas live in reward of some good act performed in lifetime. It consists of 83 stories in seven parts (vagga). The Petavatthu consists of 51 stories in four vaggas, and it describes the sorrowful fate of the spirits or restless souls (peta), which have to expiate for the sins committed in lifetime.

c6.s1.t4.27

² The Sutta-Nipāta, ed. V. Fausböll, I. Text, II. Glossary, London; The Sutta-Nipāta, new ed. by D. Andersen and H Smith, London. PTS. 1913. Translation by V. Fausböll, The Sutta-Nipāta transl., SBE. X, Part 2, Oxford 1881. A concordance of the Gāthās of Sn. by R. O. Franke, ZDMG. 63, 1 ff., 255 ff., 64. 1 ff.

c6.s1.t4.28

³ The Vimāna-Vatthu, ed. Gooneratne, London, PTS. 1886 (uncritical). On the commentary on Vv., see below, 25. 3.

c6.s1.t4.29

⁴ Petavatthu, ed. Minayeff, London, PTS. 1888. W. Stede, Die Gespenstergeschichten des Peta Vatthu, Leipzig 1914.

c6.s1.t4.30

⁵ Cf. above, p. 13, f.-n. 1.

c6.s1.t4.31

13. Like Vv. and Pv. also 8. the Theragāthā and 9. Therigāthā ¹ are metrical in form. These are collections of strophes which are attributed to renowned monks (Thera) and nuns (Therī). Often several strophes together form short poems. There is no doubt that these strophes contain much that belongs to the authentic Buddhistic literature of the earliest times. Many verses however might have been fabricated by the collectors or the redactors on the basis of fragmentary reminiscences. As for the authors, the ascription of verses to a particular monk or a particular nun might in most cases be quite arbitrary. It is however not impossible that in some cases the ascription of verses to these authors is based on a dependable tradition. The Thera- and the Therigāthās can on no account be regarded as a "homogeneous work of a single intellect," even if due concession is made in this respect for the notorious utilisation of existing Gāthās. ² The number of Theragāthās is 1,279, and that of Therigāthās 522; the former are divided into 21 and the latter into 16 Nipātas, called Eka-, Dukanipāta, etc., according as they contain one strophe or more attributed to one and the same author.—10. The Jātakas ³ are a collection of strophes which from the beginning presuppos[e] accompanying prose narratives. Each of the latter contains the story of the Buddha in one of his earlier existences. Only the verses however were regarded as canonical; the prose narrative was left more or less to the discretion of the reciters. The strophes are very different in character. Sometimes they give the morals of the story, sometimes the questions and answers of the characters in the story form the subject of the verses, and sometimes the verses represent both the dialogue and the narrative. In the later Jātakas the narrative verses are predominant and they often combine to form ballads or epic poems. In the face of such diversity I cannot understand how "the mass of the Jātaka-Gāthās as a whole" may be regarded as "the personal product of a single author." ⁴ The Jātaka-verses are doubtless a "collection." This is suggested also by its quite artificial division into Nipātas as in the case of Thera- and Therīgāthās. The "section of ones" (Ekanipāta) consists of verses of which only one at a time belongs to a particular story; in the "section of twos" two verses belong to each story, etc.

c6.s1.t4.32

¹ The Thera- and Therī-Gāthā, ed. H. Oldenberg and R. Pischel, London, PTS. 1883.—Translations : K. E. Neumann, Die Lieder der Mönche und Nonnen Gotamo Buddho's, Berlin 1899; Mrs. Rhys Davids, Psalms of the Early Buddhists, I, II, London PTS., 1909, 1913

c6.s1.t4.33

² R. O. Franke, ZDMG. 63.1611.

c6.s1.t4.34

³ Cf. below in 23 for literature.

c6.s1.t4.35

⁴ R. O. Franke, WZKM. 20. 318. For the contrary view, cf. Winternitz, op. cit., pp. 122-23. Moreover, Franke himself modifies his statement to such an extent that it is quite doubtful whether in his own opinion too the expression "author" should not be replaced by "redactor."

c6.s1.t4.36

14. The last pieces of the Kh. N. are 11. the Niddesa, a commentary to a part of the Suttanipāta, traditionally ascribed to Sāriputta. This text has not yet been edited.—12. The Paṭisambhidāmagga,¹ dealing with the knowledge attained by the Arahant, belongs rather to the Abhidhamma literature both in form and contents.—13. The Apadāna,² most parts of which are still unedited, is a collection of legends in verse, in which are glorified the noble deeds (Apadāna) of Buddhistic saints in previous existences. This work is certainly one of the youngest in the canon, but hardly younger than the Avadānas of the Sanskrit Buddhist literature.—14. The Buddhavamsa³ is also metrical in form; in 28 cantos it delineates the story of 24 former Buddhas as well as of Gotama Buddha, recited by the latter himself.—15. The Cariyāpiṭaka³ is a selection of 25 metrical Jātakas. Buddha himself explains in them how in previous existences he had fulfilled the ten Pāramitās "perfections," which are the pre-condition of Buddhahood. In the first four Nikāyas the doctrine of the Pāramitās is still unknown. Winternitz⁴ rightly characterises the Cp. as the artificial production of "an excellent monk who was anything but a poet" and who manufactured edifying stories for the elucidation of the doctrine on the basis of the existing Jātakas. There were various recensions of the Cp.⁵ One of them is mentioned in the Nidānakathā of the Jātaka-book, but only two-thirds of the stories agree with ours.

c6.s1.t4.37

¹ Paṭisambhidāmagga, ed. A. C. Taylor I, II, London, PTS. 1905, 1907. Index by M. Hunt, JPTS. 1908, p. 152 ff.

c6.s1.t4.38

² Texts out of the Apadāna in E. Müller's edition of Th2Co. See below, 28.2. Cf. further, E Müller, Verhandlungen des X. Orientalisten-Kongr. in Genf, 1894, I 165 ff.; L. Feer, JAs. 1883, s. 8, t. I, p. 408, 433 ff.

c6.s1.t4.39

³ The Buddhavamsa and the Cariyāpiṭaka, ed. R. Morris, London, PTS. 1882.

c6.s1.t4.40

⁴ Buddh. Lit., p. 164.

c6.s1.t4.41

⁵ Charpentier, Zur Gesch. des Cp., WZKM. 24, 1910, p. 351 ff.

5. Abhidhamma-Piṭaka

c6.s1.t5.1

16. The Abhidhamma is not a systematic philosophy, but merely a supplement to the dhamma.⁶ The works belonging to it mostly contain merely detailed elucidations of various topics dealing with ethics, psychology or theory of knowledge which are mentioned in the canon. Its form is throughout scholastic. The themes are schematically classified; they are not properly defined but rather described by multiplying synonyms, and they are brought into all possible combinations considered as they are from the most different points of view. The Abhidhamma is highly venerated particularly in Burma. The first suggestions of the Abhidhamma are found already in the dry and schematic enumerations in the Aṅguttara-Nikāya of the Sutta-Piṭaka, the last two Suttantas of the Dīgha-Nikāya¹ and similar pieces.

c6.s1.t5.2

⁶ Rhys Davids, Buddhism (Amer. Lect.), p. 62.

c6.s1.t5.3

¹ The Saṃgīti and the Dasuttarasuttanta D. III. 207 ff., 272 ff.

c6.s1.t5.4

16. The following seven works belong to the Abhidhamma: 1. Dhammasaṅgaṇi² "enumeration of psychical phenomena,"—a psychological work.—2. Vibhaṅga³ "differentiation," a supplement and continuation of the preceding.—3. Kathāvatthu,⁴ which has been already referred to in 1. It is perhaps historically the most important book in the Abhidhamma. I consider the tradition about its origin to be quite trustworthy.—4. The Puggalapaññatti⁵ "description of individuals" deals with the various personalities and characters in the form of questions and answers.—5. The Dhātukathā or the Dhātukathāpakaraṇa⁶ "discussion of the elements" deals with the various psychic phenomena and their relation to the categories.—6. The Yamaka⁷ "book of pairs" is a work on applied logic, and it derives its name apparently from the fact that all psychic phenomena are considered in it in the light of a particular thesis and its opposite antithesis.—7. The Paṭṭhānappakaraṇa or Mahāpaṭṭhāna⁸ is a voluminous work. It deals with causality, but is very difficult to understand. The best European expert in the Abhidhamma, Mrs. Rhys Davids, says of this work ¹: "the text remains very difficult and obscure to the uninitiated Western mind, and I am far from pretending to solve any one of its problems."

c6.s1.t5.5

² The Dhammasaṅgaṇi, ed. E. Müller, London. PTS. 1885; C. Rhys Davids, A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics, being a translation of the Dhammasaṅgaṇi, London 1900.

c6.s1.t5.6

³ The Vibhaṅga, ed. Mrs. Rhys Davids, London. PTS 1904

c6.s1.t5.7

⁴ Kathāvatthu, ed. A C. Taylor I, II. London PTS. 1894, 1897.

c6.s1.t5.8

⁵ The Puggala-Paññatti, ed R Morris, London. PTS. 1883; Nyanatiloka, Puggala Paññatti, das Buch der Charaktere übers., Breslau 1910.

c6.s1.t5.9

⁶ The Dhātu Kathā Pakaraṇa and its commentary, ed. E. R. Gooneratne, London, PTS. 1892.

c6.s1.t5.10

⁷ The Yamaka, ed. C. Rhys Davids I, II, London, PTS. 1911, 1913.

c6.s1.t5.11

⁸ Only the first part of the Duka-paṭṭhāna has been edited by Mrs. Rhys David, London, PTS. 1906. Cf. JPTS. 1896, 33-34.

c6.s1.t5.12

¹ Duka Pṭh. I, Preface, p. XIV.

Supplement : The Paritta

c6.s1.t6.1

17. The Paritta or Mahāparitta ² is a collection of canonical texts for popular magical use. In Ceylon such Paritta-ceremonies (Sgh. pirit) are still in vogue. As Seidenstücker says, such ceremonies are performed on various occasions, such as the building of a new house, death, illness, etc.³ On these occasions the texts collected in the Paritta are recited. There are altogether 29 pieces, of which 7 are taken from the Khuddakapāṭha (cf. 11. 1), which seems to have been a predecessor of the Paritta. Also in Burma the Paritta is held in high esteem by the laity. It is not known when the present Paritta was compiled. Magical rites are, however, known in Buddhism from the earliest times. It is said of Buddha himself, ⁴ that he taught a "snake charm" to his disciples: it is significant that the purpose of the charm is to completely envelop the snakes with one's own spirit of benevolence (mettena cittena pharitum), so that it may not do any harm to anybody. It is also said in the book of Milinda that the parittā were taught by Buddha.⁵ Of the six texts which are then cited as examples, five are found in our Paritta. The commentary of the Dhammapada relates ⁶ of a great exorcism, which was performed by Ānanda during the life-time of Buddha by means of the Ratanasutta of the Suttanipāta.

c6.s1.t6.2

² The text in Frankfurter, Handbook of Pali, pp. 81-139. Cf. Seidenstücker, Khuddaka-Pāṭho, p. 29 ff. M. Bode, Pali Lit. of Burma, p. 3 f. The word parittā signifies "Protection (from evil spirits)"; parittāsutta "magical cord (tied round the wrist as an amulet)" JāCo. I, 396¹³ (here also parittāvalikā), Mhvs. 7 14; parittam karoti "performs a magical ceremony," JāCo. II. 34¹⁶.

c6.s1.t6.3

³ Cf. also JRAS., Ceylon Branch, VII, Nr. 23, p. 38; VIII. Nr. 29, p. 321ff

c6.s1.t6.4

⁴ Vin II. 109-110; A. II.72.

c6.s1.t6.5

⁵ Milp. p 150f. Cf. M. Bode, ibid.

c6.s1.t6.6

⁶ DhCo. III. 441 ff.

II. The Non-Canonical Literature

I Period: From the Completion of the Canon to the 5th Century A.D.

c6.s2.t1.2

18. According to the Indian tradition it was Mahinda who brought to Ceylon along with the canon also an Aṭṭhakathā, a commentary on it. The authenticity of this tradition however cannot be proved. It is at all events certain that in Ceylon already at an early time there was a commentary literature of considerable magnitude and multifarious contents. On this commentary literature is based not only the later commentaries such as those of Buddhaghosa, but also the historical literature beginning with the Dīpavaṃsa. This Aṭṭhakathā of Ceylon seems to have been still existing and accessible even in the 12th century.¹ In the opening verses of his Vinaya-commentary, the Samantapāsādikā, Buddhaghosa mentions the Aṭṭhakathā as the source of his own work.² Buddhaghosa says that the Aṭṭhakathā was composed in the (old) Sinhalese language. In order to make it accessible to the Bhikkhus, and at the suggestion of the Thera Buddhasiri, he translated it into Pāli. The chief source was the Mahā-Aṭṭhakathā; but he turned into account also the materials of other commentaries, such as the Mahāpaccari- and the Kurundi-Aṭṭhakathā. The two Ṭīkās on Smp., the Vajirabuddhi and the Sāratthadīpanī,³ mention moreover the Cullapaccari, the Andhaṭṭhakathā the Paṇṇavāra, and the Saṃkhepaṭṭhakathā. According to the Saddhammasaṃgaha (14th century) the Mahā-Aṭṭhakathā was the commentary on the Sutta-Piṭaka, the Mahāpaccari on the Abhidhamma, and the Kurundi on Vinaya.⁴ Also the Gandhavaṃsa ⁵ mentions the same three Aṭṭhakathās, and in fact the Aṭṭhakathā par excellence (i.e., the Mahā-A.) is ascribed to the Porāṇācariyā, and the two others are regarded as works of the Gandhācariyā—which clearly shows that they are later. Nothing has been directly preserved of all these old Ceylonese Aṭṭhakathās.

c6.s2.t1.3

¹ This is quite evident from the data of the Mahāvaṃsa-Ṭīkā, ZDMG.68.549-550. R. O. Franke's objection (D.XLV35) may be met simp'y by consulting the contents of the passages of the Mhvs. Ṭī. quoted by me.

c6.s2.t1.4

² Edited by Saya U Pye I.21 ff. Cf. also the introductions to the Sumaṅgalavilāsinī, Manorathapūraṇī, etc.

c6.s2.t1.5

³ In Minayeff, Prātimoksha, p. VII, note 10. Look there for the meaning of the title.

c6.s2.t1.6

⁴ Sdhs., JPTS. 1890, p. 55f. Cf. also Minayeff, Recherches sur le Bouddhisme, p. 284. It is however remarkable that Buddhaghosa does not mention the Kurundi as the chief source of his Smp.

c6.s2.t1.7

⁵ Gnvs., JPTS. 1886, pp. 59 and 68.

c6.s2.t1.8

19. There are preserved from the time before Buddhaghosa: 1. The Nettippakaraṇa "book of guidance," also called simply Netti, and 2. the Peṭakopadesa "instruction on the Piṭaka" or the Peṭaka.¹ In Burma these two works are regarded as canonical.² As the titles show, they serve as introduction to the teachings of Buddhism. According to tradition they were composed by Mahākaccāyana, one of the most prominent disciples of Buddha.³ This is however certainly not true. The author was probably Kaccāyana by name and was hence identified with the renowned disciple of Buddha. The same was the case also with the grammarian Kaccāyana. The problem of the time of origin of these two works has been discussed by E. Hardy ⁴ in the light of both internal and external evidences. He assigns to them a date about the beginning of the Christian era. In connection with the Netti and the Peṭaka let us also mention 3. the Suttasaṃgaha ⁵ "collection of the Suttas." It is the only comprehensive anthology of Suttas as well as of texts such as Vimānavatthu, etc. We know nothing about the time of its origin or about its author. This work has however to be mentioned here because, along with Netti, Peṭaka and the book of Milinda, it is considered in Burma to belong to the "canonical" Khuddaka-Nikāya.⁶

c6.s2.t1.9

¹ The Netti-Pakaraṇa with extracts from Dhammapāla's commentary, ed. E. Hardy, London, PTS. 1902 (Cf. J. d' Alwis, Catal., p. 70 ff.); Specimen des Peṭakopadesa (Dissertation) by R. Fuchs, Berlin 1908.

c6.s2.t1.10

² M. Bode, Pali Lit. of Burma, p. 4 f.

c6.s2.t1.11

³ Gnvs. p. 49. The authorship of Mahākaccāyana is claimed for the Netti both in the introductory verses and at the end.

c6.s2.t1.12

⁴ Netti, Introd., p. VIII ff.

c6.s2.t1.13

⁵ Oldenberg, Catal., p. 80, Nr. 44; Fausböll, JPTS. 1896, p. 31, Nr. 92.

c6.s2.t1.14

⁶ Cf. f.-n. 2.

c6.s2.t1.15

20. The Milindapañhā ⁷ "Questions of Milinda," contains in the style of Suttas a dialogue between King Milinda and the Thera Nāgasena about the most important problems of Buddhism.⁸ In contents the book represents the orthodox point of view of the Theravādins. As the quotations occurring in it show, the canon known to the author does not differ in anything from the Pāli canon.¹ Milinda is the Indian form of the name of the Graeco-Bactrian king Menander (end of the 2nd century B.C.), who was evidently well disposed towards Buddhism, but of whom it remains unknown whether he actually became a Buddhist.² Our Milindapañhā is very probably based on a Buddhistic Sanskrit work, composed in North-West India about the beginning of the Christian era.³ The translation into Pāli took place in Ceylon, already before Buddhaghosa who quotes it repeatedly. The original work was much shorter as the Chinese translations show.⁴ The real contents of the work ended with Chapter 2, at the end of which we find in our Pāli text the remark: Nāgasena-Milindarāja-pañhā niṭṭhitā. Its introduction too was much shorter in the original than in the Pāli version. It was considerably extended in Ceylon by various additions after existing models.⁵ It is not improbable that there were various versions of it in Pāli; also the fragments of a metrical version are found in the Pāli text.

c6.s2.t1.16

⁷ This is probably the correct title.

c6.s2.t1.17

⁸ The Milindapañho...ed. V. Trenckner, London 1880.—Translations: Rhys. Davids, The Questions of King Milinda, transl., I, II=SBE XXXV, XXXVI, London 1890, 1894. Cf. R. Garbe, ein histor. Roman aus Altindien. Rodenbergs Deutsche Rundschau,

c6.s2.t1.18

¹ Rhys Davids, Questions I, p. XIV ff.

c6.s2.t1.19

² See Rhys Davids, Questions I, p. XIX ff.; V. Smith, Early History of India, pp. 187, 226; von Gutschmid, Gesch. Irans, p. 104 ff.

c6.s2.t1.20

³ Rhys Davids, Questions I, p. XLV ff.

c6.s2.t1.21

⁴ B. Nanjio, Catal. of the Buddhist Tripitaka, Nr. 1358; E. Specht, Deux Traductions Chinoises du Milindapañho (with Introduction by Sylv. Lévi), Transact. IXth Congress of Or. I, London 1893, p. 520; Takakusu, JRAS. 1896, p. 1 ff.; E. Specht, JAs. sér. 9, t. VII, 1896, p. 155.

c6.s2.t1.22

⁵ Thus, as Rhys Davids, Ibid., I, p. 8, f.-n. 2 has noticed, the story of the dispute with Purāṇa-Kassapa and Makkhali-Gosāla is only an echo of the introduction to the Sāmaññaphalasuttanta, D.I. 47. The story of Nāgasena's relation with Rohaṇa (Milp. 819 ff.) corresponds, as I have to point out, exactly to the story related in Mhvs. 5. 191 ff.

c6.s2.t1.23

21. To the works of the age before Buddhaghosa belong also the *Dīpavaṃsa* "the island chronicle,"⁶ a history of Ceylon up to the end of the reign of Mahāsena (325-352 A.D.). As Buddhaghosa knows the Dpv., it must have been composed between 352 and about 450 A.D. Regarded from the literary point of view it is certainly a very weak performance. The author possessed only a very imperfect knowledge of Pāli and in language he is wholly dependent on his sources by

c6.s2.t1.24

⁶ The Dīpavaṃsa...ed. and transl. H. Oldenberg, London 1879; W. Geiger, Dīpavaṃsa und Mahāvaṃsa, Leipzig 1905. Cf. IA. 35, 1906, p. 153 ff.

c6.s2.t1.25

Vol. 112, p. 261 ff., 1902; F. O. Schrader, Die Fragen des Königs Menandros I, Berlin 1907; Winternitz, Buddhist Lit., p. 174 ff. A translation of the Milp was begun also by Nyānatiloka, fascicles 1-3, Leipzig 1914.

c6.s2.t1.26

studying which he collected his materials. R. O. Franke was quite right in all this.¹ But he is quite wrong when, confusing form with contents, he refuses to recognise in Dpvs. any historical value. In contents the Chronicle is based on the historical portions of the old Aṭṭhakathā. That the informations given in it are not quite imaginary² is proved by its frequent agreement with the tradition current in continental India. The Dpvs. is therefore the vehicle of an old historical tradition, and it is the duty of historical criticism to examine it minutely and assess its worth.

First 128 of 382 passages. Read on

Linked texts (79)