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History of Bengali Language and Literature c8: Chapter IV.

History of Bengali Language and Literature c8

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English

Chapter IV.

c8.1

As a result of the conquest of Bengal by the Muhammadans and their settlement in the country, a number of Persian and Arabic words were mixed with the dialect current in Bengal. In the official and business-life this foreign element naturally predominated. Sanskritic words were replaced by those imported by Moslem settlers. As the Hindus gradually lost administrative functions, the language of the court became full of Arabic and Persian words. Articles of luxury and the customs of high life bore foreign names, and the fact of a conquering nation gradually monopolizing all power, together with all the important and profitable activities is evidenced in the indelible marks left on our language,—this importation of foreign words having commenced so early as 1203 A.D. when the Muhammadans invaded Bangal.

c8.2

It is a sad history for Hindus. The words ধর্মাধিকার (Justice of the peace), নিশানাধ (the town-inspector), পাত্র (minister), সেনা (soldier) and similar words denoting functionaries high and low, which we often meet with in our early literature, were gradually replaced by the words কাজি, কোটাল, উজির, পাইক etc., shewing that the courts of the Hindu Kings were being thrown into

c8.3

Mixture of Arabic and Persian words in Bengali.

c8.4

shade while those of the Muhammadans flourished. The word নগর which means a city was replaced by the word সহর; the Bengali টাকা a rupee (from Sanskrit টঙ্কা) when received as revenue by the Muhammadan rulers became খাজনা; the words ভূমি and ভূঞা (from Sans ভৌমিক) signifying land and landowner were replaced by জমি and জমিদার. The mansions of the rich and all big buildings were no longer called অট্টালিকা but became known as এমারৎ. The little earthen lamp retained its old name প্রদীপ, but the word which once implied all classes of lamps became restricted in sense. Chandeliers and the wall-lamps were now called ঝাড় and দেওয়ালগিরি respectively, and so in all departments of life, the very words imported into our tongue by the Muhammadans shew that they were enjoying the cream of things and monopolizing all power. The case was the same as that of the Saxon language after the Norman conquest. The victors who were placed in power introduced their own words into the spheres with which they were directly connected.

c8.5

Conserve-tiveness of Hindu writers.

c8.6

But, curiously, in the vernacular literature of the Hindus, inspite of this common use of foreign words, our writers showed great unwillingness to adopt non-Sanskritic words. In the old literature of Bengal we seldom come across foreign words. In the pride of what Hindus considered to be their own superior civilization, they remained aloof from Muhammadan contact as for as practicable, contented with their own social life and the cultivation of their classical literature. They cared not who administered the country; thus the word সহর (city) is of Muhammadan origin, while গাঁ (a village) remained true to the Sanskritic form. In the village the Hindu element was not sullied by the touch of anything foreign. The word চাঁদ (moon), সূর্য্য (sun), বায়ু (air), পানী (water) ফুল (flower) and those denoting objects of nature and social life retained their original Sanskrit or Prakitic forms—not to speak of words relating to religious functions which remained unchanged. As nearly all Bengali works of the period deal with social and religious subjects, there are scarcely any foreign words in them, and only a sprinkling of these occurs in the descriptions of the Courts of kings.

c8.7

This was an age when Sanskritic words were being largely vernacularised, a practice to which we have already alluded. The translations are full of instances of highly artistic Sanskrit expressions as কমলাংগতল 'অগ্নিআংশ যেন পাংশ' 'চলচপলা' etc. A new school had came into existence, the function of which was to Sanskritise Bengali. Even in the works of Mukundarāma who more than any other Bengali poet except Chandi Dās used provincialisms in his poetry, we come across such words as মাতুলুঙ্গ, ঈষুপাশ, নিম্ন and প্রবল-চপল-ভঙ্গা. The ingenious similes and figurative expressions which developed in a subsequent period are indicated in Mukundarāma’s writings though he seemed least inclined to use them. He belonged to the school of the people but owned some kinship with that of the pedantic scholars also. We quote here a passage in illustration ;—

c8.8

"I cannot describe the beauty of Umā’s face. Smitten by its beauty the moon dares not appear in the daytime, for this reason the moon looks pale and wears a blot which men speak of as the lunar spot. The pomegranate seeds, beaten by the beauty of Umā’s teeth, have lost their

c8.9

lustre. The pomegranate fruit bursts when ripe, owing to this feeling of shame." These lines of Mukundarāma, sounds a prelude to the style of which Bhārat Chandra in a later age was the finished master. In the literature of this period there will be found instances of figures of speech and clever turns of thought borrowed from Sanskrit, shewing that a new era was dawning on our literature which welcomed art in the place of nature, and valued the rules of Sanskrit rhetoric more than the dictates of the heart.

c8.10

A new era.

c8.11

Along with the resuscitation of Sanskrit words, systematic efforts were being made to correct the spelling of Bengali words, which still retained the forms prescribed by Prākrita Orthography. This process along with that of Sanskritising words, has ever since been going on in our literature. There are many words of Sanskritic origin in Bengali even now which are spelt after the rules of Prākrita grammar; such for instance are the words কাজ, সোনা, কান and সাদা which are derived from the Sanskrit কার্য, স্বর্ণ, কর্ণ and শ্বেত respectively, but which still retain Prākrita spelling. The purists will, I am sure, ere long correct them. In old manuscripts we find innumerable instances of কে, জাহার, জার which are no longer presented to us in such Prākrita forms. The M.S. of Chandi Kāvya, believed to be witten by Mukundarāma himself, shows spellings of words which do not always conform to Sanskrit grammar; but Mukundarāma, it should be remembered, lived in an age when Prākrita forms of spelling were current in written Bengali,—when the purists had just began to correct the Vernacular

c8.12

Correction of Orthography.

c8.13

language on the model of Sanskrit grammar and its orthography. Mukundarāma lived in this transition period; he used provincial words which were latterly condemned as unworthy to find a place in decent literature, as often as he used Sanskritic. In the spelling of words also he favoured the Prākṛita forms in use, as often as he adopted Sanskritic forms. The charge of mistakes in spelling cannot be laid at his door, as during his time old ways were not given up in our language, and the Sanskrit orthography was not yet fully adopted for the regulation of Vernacular writings.

c8.14

The five Gauḍas or "five Indies" viz. Svārasvata (the Pānjab), Kānyakuvja (Kanoja), Gauḍa (Bengal), Mithilā (Durbhāṅgā), and Utkala (Orissā) were formerly more allied to one another than they are now. We find the Bengalis to have been in close touch with the people of other parts of Āryyāvarta. The old Bengali poems were known by the common name of Pāñchāli. This word shews that we owe at least some forms of the old Bengali metres to Pañchāla or Kānoja. Svārasvata or the Pānjab gave us its Çaka era which was adopted by the Bengalis, as it was by the people of other parts of India. The civilization of Bengal—the new learning, especially that of logic, which made the tols of Nadia famous throughout India, came from Mithilā, when Magadha, its glorious days over, had ceased to give light to Eastern India. With Kaliṅga or Orissā, Bengal in the past was inseparably associated. Our prophet Chaitanya Deva counts more votaries amongst the Uriyā people than in Bengal itself. So we find that the five Gauḍas, as the five influencial Provinces of Āryyāvarta were called, had in the past ages a greater touch with one another and exchanged their thoughts and ideas more freely than now.

c8.15

Affinity in language.

c8.16

Vaiṣṇava literature has brought many Hindi words into Bengali. In fact a large number of songs in old Vaiṣṇava literature were composed in what is called Vrajavali—a sort of Hindi current in Durbhāṅga. This admixture of Hindi with Bengali was due to the predilection in favour of the dialect of Vṛndāvan on the part of Vaiṣṇava writers. They also adopted it in order to imitate Vidyāpati the great master of songs, who wrote in the Maithila language. But the Hindi words occurring in the works of the Vaiṣṇavas cannot claim a place in the vocabulary of the Bengali language. Outside the pale of Vaiṣṇava literature we come across many Bengali words more or less allied to Hindi and other dialects of Āryyāvarta, the use of which has grown obsolete now. This indicates that Bengali in early times, as we might have surmised, bore a closer affinity than now to other dialects of Northern India, whose origin is Sanskritic. It branched off from the parent language at a remote point of time when the Aryan settlers divided themselves into communities and settled in different parts of the country. So in the past the dialects also were nearer to one another. This fact in the case of Bengali is evidenced by the existence of the following and other similar words in our literature of the 15th and 16th centuries.

c8.17

“খেতকে, তেতকে, বড়ুয়া, পইতায়, সুবোধিয়া, সরুয়া, পোখরি, বাবন, দোন, ডাবিয়া (Mānik Chandra Rājār Gān) সাশিয়াল, বাউরী, সতাই, শিবাই, বড়ি, টিট, পাকনা সোয়াস্তি (Vijay Gupta) ; বহিন, শুতিল, এড়া (Krithivāsa); আঝর, (আর), করিয়োহঁ, (করিলাম), তৈল, (ইল), বড়া, (বড়), হেয়া হ'য়ে, বহঁতর (অনেক), হুয়োক (হউক), আবে (এখন), হইনুই (হই কি না), পালটাইয়া (ফিরে), কিসক (কেন), ভাহাই (ভাই), নজীঁব (বাঁচিবনা), পিন্দই (পরিধান করে), (Ananta-Rāmāyana) ; কঁরো, কৈলু, দোহা, আঁইলু, শকুনিয়া, করিলেস্ত, যায়, পড়িলেস্ত, আইবেন্ত, etc., মোহর, চাহসি, কহসি, করসি etc., নিয়ড়ে, কঁাহা, তুমি, সব, বাও, বোলাও, এহি, বিহা, চিহ্, নিঁদ, কেই, পাকায়, (Sanjaya, Kavindra, Çrikarna Nandi and others.)

c8.18

Of the words quoted above, শুতিল is still in use in Durbhāngā. The words করেন্ত, বলেন্ত etc. are used in Orissā. The suffix 'য়া' occurring in the proper names such as শকুনিয়া reminds us of Hindi. The Hindi word আবে changed into য়াবে is still in use in Eastern Bengal. The case-endings as in পরদেশকো লাগিয়া, জলকো লাগিয়া in Mānik Chandra Rājār Gān and ঘরকে গমন in Krittivāsa and কাঁধকে রুমাল in Kriṣṇa Vijay are akin to uses current in Hindi.

c8.19

Not only in the language, but also in costumes and habits, the Bengalis of past times were more like their brethern of the up-country. They used to wear a turban and tuck up the Dhuti tightly between the legs as the Hindustani people do now. When the merchant Chānd presented three silk clothes to the Rājā of Ceylon, the Rājā was taught to wear it after the fashion of the Bengalis, and Vijay Gupta thus describes it :—

c8.20

Agreement in habits and costumes.

c8.21

“One the Rājā wore round the loins tucking the ends tightly between the legs. Of the other he made a turban, and with the third he covered his body.”—In Mānik Chandra Rajār Gān we found Nengā brother of Rājā Mānik Chandra asking him to take his turban off as his mother was dead. The ladies of Bengal used to wear a bodice called Kanchuli like the up-country women of today. We meet with description of the Kanchuli in almost all our writers from Vijay Gupta downward. The custom lingered even up to the time of Rājā Kriṣṇa Chandra of Nadīā in the eighteenth century. We quote from the Bengali work called Kṣitīça Vamçāvalī Charita† “The queen (of Kriṣṇa Chandra) and the ladies of the royal family used to wear silk Çāḍis but during festivities and on important religious occasions they put on the Kanchuli (bodice), Ghāgrā (a sort of gown worn by up-country women), and Oḍṇā as the ladies of the North-western countries do.” A description of this Oḍṇā is to be found in many of the old Bengali poems; for instance in a pada by Vamçivadana we have the following‡

c8.22

† রাজ্ঞী ও রাজবধু এবং রাজকন্যারা কার্পাস বা কৌশের সাটী পরিতেন। কিন্তু প্রায় সমস্ত শুভ কর্ম্মোপলক্ষে পশ্চিমোত্তর দেশীয় সম্ভ্রান্ত মহিলাগণের ন্যায় কাঁচুলি, ঘাঘরা ও ওড়ণা পরিতেন। p. 35.

c8.23

‡ “নীল ওড়ণার মাঝে মুখ শোভা করে। পাইলে ছাড়িবে নাহি দারুণ ভ্রমরে॥”

c8.24

* একখানি কাছিয়া পিদ্ধে, একখানি মাথায় বাঁধে,
আর একখানি দিল সর্ব্ব গায়।
Vijay Gupta.

c8.25

“Through a blue Oḍnā appeared her beautiful fair face; what if a bee mistakes it for a lotus and stings?” A Nivivandha or girdle is also described in many of our old poems as worn by women.

c8.26

It was the fashion with the Bengalis of the higher classes to wear their hair long and in plaits. We find in Chandi Dās, Rādhā’s maidens humorously asking Kṛṣṇa why his braided hair hangs loosely down his back. We have many accounts of how Chaitanya Deva’s long hair was perfumed and washed with Āmlaki (myrobolan) and how it was cut off by a barber named Devā (according to some Madhu) on the eve of his taking the vow of asceticism. In Vijay Gupta’s Padmāpurāṇa we find the following lines:—

c8.27

“*Beautiful Lakṣmindra’s long and flowing hair hung loose as his kinsmen carried him to the bank of the river Gāngura.”

c8.28

In Krithivāsa’s Rāmāyaṇa we find “the soldiers of Rāma fled precipitously, havig no time even to tie their long hair into knots.”† The Bengalis up to the 16th century wore their hair long as the Madrasis and the Uriyas do now. They scented it with perfumes and plaited it like the women. In the 17th century they imitated the fashion of the Moslem gentry—who allowed their hair to grow

c8.29

† “পলায় রামের সৈন্য নাহি বাঁধে চুল।” Krittivās.

c8.30

*“ পরম সুন্দর লখাই দীর্ঘ মাথার চুল। জাতিগণ ধরে নিল গাঙ্গুরের কুল ॥ Vijay Gupta.

c8.31

till it touched the shoulders in curls. This is called the Bābri—a fashion to which the Hindus stuck even till the middle of the 19th century.

c8.32

The poet Bhārat Chandra of a subsequent age describes ‘Kusumbhā’ as a favourite food with Çiva. Present Bengali readers have no idea of what this word implies. In several editions of Bhārat Chandra, the annotators observe silence as regards the passage, but in Rājputanā, ‘Kusumbhā’ is an article of luxury even now. It is a preparation of opium and milk which the Rājputs take on festive occasions.

c8.33

Thus a study of our old literature brings to our knowledge various points of community in language, habits, and modes of living amongst those different branches that all came from one common stock and settled in different parts of the country. This affinity can also be accounted for by the fact that politically the five provinces to which a reference has been made, often remained under the same suzerain power. The title ‘Pancha Gauḍeçvara’ or the ‘Lord of five Indies’ was assumed by the King who for the time being became ascendant among the five powers.

c8.34

In old Bengali literature we frequently come across the title Pancha Gauḍeçvara applied to petty chiefs by their protégés—the poets, but the word always recalls the high political significance it once possessed. It is a title akin to the Bretwalda of the Saxons.

c8.35

The literature of Western Bengal had many words which have passed out of the current dialect of that province but the use of them still lingers in Eastern Bengal. The words করিমু, খাইমু, করিবাম, খাম, দিবাম, etc., occur in Chaitanya-Bhāgavata and in the Manaṣā Maṅgalas written three to four hundred years ago by authors who were born in Birbhum and contiguous districts. And curiously enough the people of these districts now ridicule the people of Eastern Bengal for continuing to use the same words. Instances of করোস, করেন্ত, বোলেন্ত, etc., abound in the early literature of Eastern Bengal and that of the west also is not wholly free from such uses. In Çrikriṣṇa Vijaya by Mālādhara Vasu, Dāker Vachana and other works of West Bengal, many examples of পিবন্তি, যান্তি, খায়োমি, পুজসি, etc., are found. In Eastern Bengal we find the termination 'ও' affixed to a number of words after the manner of Prākrita, such as মাও for মা, পাও for পা, খাও for খা, নাও for না, রাও for রা, গাঁও for গাঁ, ছাও for ছা, দাও for দা, ভাও for ভাব, বাও for বা, তাও for তা. Occcasionally they are met with in the earlier literature of Western Bengal also, as in Dāker-vachan “রূপার দোলায় ফেলাম পাও.”

c8.36

The men and women in the Buddhistic age had curious names, not at all pleasing to the ears, such as অদুনা, পদুনা, নেঙ্গা, খেতুরি, ময়নামতী, হিজু, দুহি, দুই, রুই, কুই, আই, লহনা, খুল্লনা, সায় নেড়া, সমাই, মালদ্যা, লোহাটা, &c. But with the advent of the Sanskrit age, choice classical names began to be preferred. In Vijay Gupta's Padmāpurāṇa along with names which remind us of the Buddhistic period, Sanskrit names are found in large numbers; such for instance, as চন্দ্রপ্রভা lustre of the moon, অনুপমা the peerless, চন্দ্ররেখা moon-beam, মালতি jasmine, শশী the moon, সুবর্ণ রেখা gold-lining, রঙ্গিনী the playful, সরলা the sincere one, রূপমঞ্জরী beautiful bud, মদনমঞ্জরী flower-sceptre of cupid, জয়-মালা garland of victory, বিমলা the pure. By far the greater number of names are found to follow those of the Hindu gods and goddesses.

c8.37

We quote a passage from the same work to illustrate with one or two exceptions, its uniform use of non-Sanskritic names.

c8.38

"There came a maid whose name was Rādhā ; her henpecked lord, she led home like a tame ass ; another maiden came of the name of Rui whose bald head was redeemed only by a tuft of hair in the middle ; another whose name was Saru, her braided locks were eaten up by a cow, as she had gone to the cow-shed for lighting the fire ; another maid came of the name of Kui, in the hollows of whose cheeks some two maunds of broken rice could be stored ; another maid appeared called Āi whose cheeks were high, but the nose sunk deep between them, so that it could be scarcely seen ; yet another maid of the name of Suā, so tall that her head touched the top of the door as she came out."*

c8.39

*“একজন এয়ো আইল তার নাম রাধা।
ঘরে আছে স্বামী তার যেন পোষা গাধা॥
আর এক এয়ো আইল তার নাম রুই।
মস্তকে আছয়ে তার চুল গাছ দুই॥
আর এক এয়ো আইল তার নাম সরু।
গোয়াল ঘরে ধেঁয়া দিতে খোপা খাইল গরু॥
আর এক এয়ো আইল তার নাম কুই।
দুই গালে ধরে তার ক্ষুদ মণ দুই॥
আর এক এয়ো আইল তার নাম আই।
দুই গাল চওড়া চওড়া নাকের উদ্দেশ নাই॥
আর এক এয়ো আইল তার নাম চুয়া।
ঘর হৈতে বাহিরিতে শিরে ধরে টুয়া॥ Vijay Gupta.

c8.40

A list of words.

c8.41

We give below a list of obsolete words occurring in works treated of in this chapter with their meaning.

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In Vijay Gupta's Padmā Purāṇa :—আসোয়াস্ত—indisposed, আগল—skilled, forward, সাসিয়াল—powerful, চোপা—face, উদাসিনী—friendless, নবগুণ—sacred thread, সন্ধিধান—act of attending, খিটে—to pick up, ছামনিতে—in the front, বুড়ি—big, ধাই—mother, মাই—mother, অখান্তর—pains and hardships, মেলানি—farewell, গোহারি—humble prayer, বাহুড়িয়া—returning, পাকনা—ripe, পাঁচে—to think, আচাডুয়া—a foot, ঠান—attitude, সহিলা—maidenly friendship, ভাঙালে—to deceive, পরিপাটি—skill, টনক—strong, সোসর—like, তেলঙ্গা—stout and healthy, অবস্থা—distress, সম্ভাবনা—property, সুশ্রীত—fortunate, সানে—to make a sign, তিতা—wet (from সিক্ত, we have also got তিতল, derived from the same word ; this should not be confounded with তিতা derived from তিক্ত—bitter). In the Rāmāyaṇa by Krittivāsa:—সন্তোক token of favour, নিবড়ে—on the expiry of, ভোকে—in hunger, লোহ—tears, ওর—limit, রড়—run, কোঙর—son. In Mahābhārata by Sañjay:—আমি—I, তুমি—you, মোহর—mine, সমাইরে—to all, আগুয়ান—forward, সুসারিত—best, যুয়ায়—to become fit, কেনি—why, পুনি—again, বিনি—without, খেরি—play, হনে—from, আপ্ত—own. In Kavindra Parameçvara and Çrikaraṇ Nandi's works :—সম্ভ্রম—fear, সমে—with, পাড়িমু—I shall throw, উপালেন্ত—on. In the Padmā Purāṇa by Nārāyaṇa Dev:—খ্যাথার—ill-fame, কথা—where, এড়িয়া—leaving. In Chandi Das's poem:—চেট্যেনট্য—young wives, টীট—a knave, উতরোলে—alarmed, বড়—a Brāhmin student, দে—body, টাগ—thigh, আকুতে—In eagerness, লেহ—affection, ওদন—rice, পরিবাদ—blame, কুরিছে—to swell (from Sanskrit স্ফুরিছে; its present form is ফুলিছে). In Çrikṛiṣṇa Vijay:—সহ—recovery, রাকড়ে—sound, আউদর—dishevelled, পোকান—a son. In various other works of this period:—তয়—your, থৈলা—to keep, আবর—another, আবে—now, জাঁএ—I shall go, পুতাই—son, পোরে—son, বুড়া—old (applied to objects as বুড়া ধনু—an old bow), তবে—then, করিলহে—I did, মিলে—to be, তাইক—to him, সোমাইল—to enter, বিহদাইল—dissuaded, কাঁদিয়োক লইলা—began to cry, ছকর—a boar, নাহা—lord, সুগ্রিৱ—Sugriva, মকমকে—loudly, পিপরা—ant, ভসহিল—to inform.

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The word বাপু, not in the sense of a son but in that of a father or a guardian is often found in the works of Vijay Gupta and other poets. In the former poem we find the desciples of Dhanvantari addressing him as বাপু, and the goddess Padmā addressing her father Çiva by the same word. It is evident that the modern বাবু is derived from বাপু and it originally meant a father as the word বাপ does now.

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The words of which a list is given above occur in nearly all the old works comprised within this chapter. For the sake of convenience, however, I refer in most cases to particular authors from whose works I happened to note them.

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The case-endings of words and forms of pronouns, the examples of which I find in the works are also included in the following list.

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First person, singular, nominative আমি, মুই, আমি, আমিহ, মো. Second person, singular, nominative তুমি, তুমি, তুঁহ, তঞি. Third person, nominative তঁহ। First person, singular, nominative, accusative আম্মাতে, মোত, আম্মারে, মোহরে, মোরে. Second person, singular, nominative, accusative তোমারে, তোমাক, তোম্মা, তাত, তঁহারে, তোরে. Third person singular, nominative, accusative তাক, তাতে, তায়, তাইক. First person, singular, possessive, আম্মার, আম্মা, আমার, মোহর, মোর, মোহার. Second person, singular, possessive তোম্মা, তোম্মার, তয়, তোহার, তঁহার. Third person, singular, possessive তাক, তান, তাহান.

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The plural forms were generally formed by adding সব, গন, and আদি, as তুম্মিসব, আম্মিসব, রাক্ষসগণ, and মৃগাদি. The verbs in the first person show such forms as দোঁহা, পঁরো, তেজিয়ে, নোহো, (for নহি), দেখএ, লভিলো, বন্দম, করম, করিমু, করিমু, পাইনু, দিমু, করিনু. In the second person—কহসি, দিয়োক, করিয়োক, আসিয়োক, করিহ. In the third person we have instances of হব being used for হবে (as in নিদের স্বপনে রাজা হব দরশন). There are many curious forms of verbs such as পইতায়, আইবন্ত ভৈলন্ত, করেন্ত.

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Trade was generally carried on by a system of barter, but cowris were much used as coins, and they were counted in gandās, paṇas, and kāhaṇas. The Bengalis used to travel by sea for purposes of trade in early days, but during the period of which we are speaking, such practices fell into disuse. The sea-voyages described in old Bengali poems are monstrous fables, but they prove the existence of traditions that existed in the country, about commercial enterprises undertaken by Bengalis in the past, though couched in the forms of romances. We may, however, glean what sort of ships were made in the country from these writings. In the pictorial illustrations of the Borra Buddar temple of Jāvā published by the Dutch Government, we find numerous pictures of ships which went to that Island from Tāmluka, Chittagong and the sea-coasts of Orissā and Guzrāt, and they represent a type on which, even yet, the modern European sailing-ships have not noticeably improved. In old Bengali literature we find that oarsmen and pilots were generally recruited from Eastern Bengal. Their peculiar accent was a subject of ridicule to poets then as now. The oarsmen were supervised by Gāvurs, who would occasionally beat them with rods called Dāngās, if found to be lagging in their work. The oarsmen used to sing a chorus as they plied their oars; such songs were called ‘Sāri.’ The Madhukar or the head-ship on board which a great merchant or king embarked, was adorned with many artistic designs. The prow especially was formed into various picturesque shapes; it often represented the form of a peacock. The vessels were loaded with utensils of bell-metal made in various patterns, muslin and other fine stuffs, shells and corals, and various agricultural products of Bengal. The vessels bore poetic names such as ‘The Sea-foam,’ ‘The Royal Duck,’ ‘The moon light.’ The descriptions of places, though mere old wives’ tales entitled to little credence, have still some grains of truth in them. Of the Ceylonese, it is said that if their parents die, they keep them long without cremation. This refers to the custom of the Buddhists who sometimes allow even a whole year to pass before the corpse of a monk is cremated. In another place we find ‘If they die, the son has no claim, but the sister's son inherits the property'—a custom which is still observed in the Southern Presidency amongst the Nairs. Sea-voyages as described in the earliest Manasā Maṅgals seem to represent facts, though much distorted and exaggerated, but in later versions, we find the accounts turned into complete fiction from which it is impossible to gather any historical truth.

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The works mentioned in this chapter represent only a small portion of the literature actually written in Bengal between the 13th and the 18th centuries.* As most of these are in the form of old manuscripts and as search for them has been commenced only lately, and that in a half-hearted way, by scholars who have no funds to conduct the work vigorously, by far the greater portion of this literature was lost before any attempt was made to preserve it and of existing manuscripts not a tithe could be recovered for want of funds. The enlightened section of our community who are fond of displaying their erudition in English literature, who are never weary of admiring a Cordelia, a Haidee or even a Donna Julia and who quote from the English translation of Virgil to shew their appreciation of Dido's love, would not care to read the story of Behulā—the bride of Lakṣmīndra, whose unflinching resolution and sufferings for love rise higher than many a martyrdom; or of Khullanā, the loving damsel of Ujāni, whose beauty, tender age, sufferings and fidelity all combine to make her one of the finest creations of poetic fancy; or of Rañjāvati—the wife of King

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Old Bengali literature treated with neglect.

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∗ We have not included the works by Vaisnava authors of this period in our list.

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Kaḍna Sen of Maynāgar whose resignation was as great as her austerities that stripped even death at the stake of its natural horrors. The name of a Shelly, a Victor Hugo, or an Alfred de Musset evokes in the minds of enlightened Bengalis feelings of great admiration, but they do not care to know who were Chaṇḍī Dās, Mukundarām and Krittivāsa. The ears charmed by the beauty of Iambic and Trochaic measures would not stoop to favour the Payāra and the Tripadi Chhandas of the old Bengali poems. Yet it is their own literature which contains elements that they are naturally best fitted to appreciate, and their appreciation of the romantic motives of European literature is apt to be fraught with disastrous results to our society which, under its peculiar constitution, leaves no room for the betrothed pair to have the slightest share in the mutual choice.

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Manuscripts lost to us.

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As a natural consequence of this neglect, a large number of valuable manuscripts has been allowed to be eaten by worms or destroyed by fire, unknown and unheeded. The Battalā Printing Agencies of Calcutta, which have undertaken to minister to the literary wants of a rustic folk have preserved a considerable portion of them by printing them on paper of very inferior quality, the printer's devil having freely distorted and tampered with the readings. Yet, though meagre in number and poor in execution, the Battalā Presses have preserved what otherwise would have met with a certain destruction, and though late we have now risen to a consciousness of the gratitude which we owe to them for this invaluable service.

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The laudable efforts of Battalā.

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