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State and Government in Ancient India c22.s2: Section II: Administration in the Period of the Later Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇas and Upanishads

State and Government in Ancient India c22.s2

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Section II: Administration in the Period of the Later Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇas and Upanishads

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During the period of the Later Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas the size of the state increased considerably. There was amalgamation of tribes; the Kurus and the Pañchālas are known to have formed a federation and the same might have been done by some other tribes as well. The average kingdom at this period was probably of the size of a modern commissioner's division. Some kings of this period are styled as Mahārājas and Samrāṭs; a few are described as great conquerors, who celebrated their victories by performing sacrifices like Vājapeya and Aśvamedha. What precisely was the extent of their kingdom is difficult to state. It is unnecessary to observe that the state had long ceased to be a tribal one; it was now everywhere territorial.

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Traces of elective kingship occur in the *Atharvaveda*, as also in the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa*; but election disappeared in course of time as shown already (pp. 80-81). In some cases, as in the case of the Sṛiñjaya family, the kingship was hereditary for as many as ten generations. It was but natural that the coronation ceremony (Rājasūya) should become elaborate and pompous.

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The king was clad in ceremonial garments fit for his rank, was annointed by the priest and stepped on the tiger-skin to attain the invincible power. There was a chariot race, in which he came out successful, as also a mimic cattle raid.

King and Ministry

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The growing power of the king is illustrated by the tendency to attribute divinity to him. In the *Atharvaveda* the king Parīkshit is described as a god among men and the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* describes the king as the visible symbol of god Prajāpati himself. At the time of the coronation the priest made the king *adaṇḍya*, above ordinary punishment. The king still figured as the chief military leader; the *Aitareya Brāhmaṇa* points out how Indra was elected as king among the gods because of his military leadership. The king’s growing power is indicated by the description of the Vaiśya and Brāhmaṇa as liable to be expelled at will. Probably he controlled the land of the state and his crown estates became more extensive. He could rely upon regular taxation for the upkeep of his administration and could supplement it with occasional extra exactions; the Vaiśya has been described as liable to be devoured i.e. taxed heavily. The king probably got a lion’s share in the war booty. His judicial powers seem to have increased, especially with reference to criminal cases. The disappearance of the *sabhā* and the *samiti* removed an important check upon the royal power.

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The government was getting more and more complex as is indicated by a large number of officers being referred to in this period. The king was assisted in the administration by a council of *ratnins* consisting partly of his relations, partly of courtiers and partly of the heads of the departments of the administration (see *ante*, pp. 161-2). Some of the latter like Saṁgrahītā and Bhāgadhuk appear to have corresponded with Adhyakshas like Sannidhātā and Samāhhartā of the later age mentioned in the *Arthśāastra*, II. 5-6. The commander-in-chief, the tax-collector, the treasurer, the chamberlain and the village headman are the principal officers that are mentioned in this period.

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The charioteer and superintendent of dicing also belonged to the king's entourage.

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A relatively extensive kingdom presupposes district and local officers, but very few of them are mentioned; one of these is Grāmaṇī or the village headman and another is Sthapati, who is presumed to be a governor or chief judge.

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Grāmaṇī was probably at the head of the village administration and exercised both civil and military functions. The post carried considerable prestige and is described to be the object of the highest ambition of a Vaiśya. The king exercised his powers over the village through the medium of the Grāmaṇī. The art of writing had not yet become common; the king could establish contact with the villages either by personal tours or by sending messengers. The collection of the taxes must have been the function of the tax-gatherer and the treasurer must have stored and distributed them.

Role of Sabhā and Samiti

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*Sabhā* and *samiti* continued to be powerful checks over the king to the end of the Atharvavedic period. The worst curse which the *Atharvaveda* can pronounce against a king is that his *samiti* may not agree with him. As the period advanced, both *samiti* and *sabhā* lost their importance owing to factors that cannot be easily understood now. They are hardly referred to in the Brāhmaṇa literature. We hardly come across any systematic discussion of the aims and ideals of the state. Incidental observations, however, enable us to know that like god Varuṇa, the king was expected to be *dhṛitavrata*, the upholder of law. He was also to promote the material and moral well-being of his subjects. The *Atharvaveda* (xx. 127) glorifies king Parīkshit because people thrived merrily in his kingdom; every one felt safe and secure in his house and corn was plentiful.

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Side by side with the monarchy, which was the prevailing type of the state, there also existed republics in this age. They were known as *vairājya* or kingless states. The republican assemblies probably consisted of the patriarchs and heads of *viśas*, who used to elect a president of their own. When this office became hereditary, kingship came into existence ; when it remained elective, the state continued to be republican.

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Consolidation of the power of monarchy, the rise of different forms of the state like the Bhojya, Sāmrājya, Vairājya, etc. and the emergence of the republics may be regarded as the chief features of the age.

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