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State and Government in Ancient India c23.s2: Section II: The Administration in the Gupta Age

State and Government in Ancient India c23.s2

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Section II: The Administration in the Gupta Age

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We shall now survey the administrative structure in the Gupta period (*c.* 300 to 550 A. D.). Our account will be based mainly upon the Gupta inscriptions, but it will be supplemented here and there by the records of the contemporary dynasties as well.

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Only a few republics lingered in the Gupta period in the Punjab and Rajputana. The principal ones among them were the Madras in the Central Punjab, the Kuṇindas in the Kangra valley, the Yaudheyas in the south-eastern Punjab, the Arjunāyanas in Agra-Jaipur tract and the Mālavas in Central Rajasthan. The Prārjunas, the Sanakānīksas, the Kākas and the Abhīras flourished in Central India; they were very small in size. The Lichchhavis had probably a republican constitution, but it had almost glided into monarchy by *c.* 300 A. D. The head of the Sanakānīka republic had the title Mahārāja. The head of the Yaudheya republic also, who was its commander-in-chief as well, enjoyed the title of Mahārāja, but he was elected.¹ No republic of the age permitted its head to put his name or bust upon its coinage.

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¹ यौधेयगणपुरस्कृतस्य महाराजमहासेनापतेः । *C. I. I.* III. p. 252.

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The republics completely disappear from our view after *c.* 400 A. D. The circumstances responsible for this development have been already explained before (pp. 137-8).

Monarchy

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Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing type of government during this period. The title Mahārājādhirāja adapted from the Kushāṇa title Rājātirāja, became well established during this period in the case of mighty rulers of northern India. Early Gupta kings like Gupta and Ghaṭotkcha were designated simply as Mahārājas; from the time of Chandragupta I the higher title of Mahārājadhirāja began to be claimed. Early rulers in the Maukhari dynasty use the simple title Mahārāja; from the time of Iśānavarman, however, they adopt the grander epithet Mahārājādhirāja. In south India this title did not become very common; it is on rare occasions that the Pallava kings use the title Mahārājādhirāja or its variant *Dharmamahārājādhirāja.*

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The doctrine of the divinity of the king became more popular in this period. Samudragupta is described as God come to live upon this earth,¹ and the Kadmaba and Sālaṅkyāyana rulers as fifth Lokapālas or divine protectors.² No king, however, could claim either infallibility or autocratic powers on account of their divinity. Smṛitis and inscriptions of this period emphasise that a king can become a successful ruler only if he waits upon the elders, studies the art of government and cultivates righteousness. Haughty, irreligious and tyrannical kings are held to public opprobrium in the records of our period.³ Gupta inscriptions are silent about the nature of the training given to the prince, but the Kadamba inscriptions tell us how an ideal king was expected to have his body well built by various military exercises including riding horses and elephants, and his intellect sharpened and view-point liberalised by the study of different science.⁴ The eldest son, trained on the above lines, was usually selected as Yuvarāja; on rare occasions the choice fell upon a younger son. Junior princes were usually appointed governors; thus Govindagupta, probably a younger brother of Kumāragupta I, was his governor in Mālwā. It was only on rare occasions that the kingdom was divided to accommodate the conflicting claims of contending princes. This probably happened in the case of the Gupta empire during the latter half of the 5th century and in the case of the Vākāṭaka kingdom after the death of emperor Pravarasena I *c.* 325 A. D. In both cases the consequences were far from beneficial.

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¹ लोकधाम्नो देवस्य, Allahabad *praśasti*, *C. I. I.* III. 8

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² *I. A.*, V. 15; *E. I.*, VIII. 234

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³ आविर्भूतावलेपैरविनयपटुभिर्लङ्घिताचारमार्गे मोहाद्दैंदंयुगीनै रपशुभमतिभिः पीड्यमाना नरेन्द्रैः । *C. I. I.*, III. 146

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⁴ अनेकशास्त्रार्थतत्वविज्ञानविवेचनविनिविष्टविशालोदरमतिः हस्त्यश्वारोहणप्रहरणादिषु व्यायामकीषु भूमिषु यथावत्कृतश्रमः । *I. A.*, VII. 37

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In the Gupta administration, the Yuvarāja had his separate establishment, both civil and military. We may presume that he could issue orders to the heads of the provincial governments with the consent of the emperor. If the king was old, a good deal of the administrative work would fall upon the heir-apparent, as was the case towards the end of the reign of Kumāragupta I.

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Queens and princesses do not seem to have taken any active part in the administration. Kumāradevī was probably a regnant queen, but does not seem to have taken any active part in the administration of her husband Chandragupta I. The same seems to have been the case with Dhruvadevī, the famous crowned queen of Chandragupta II. Dowager queens however were often assuming the reins of administration during the minority of their sons; the instance of Prabhāvatīguptā, the daughter of Chandragupta II and queen of the Vākāṭaka king Rudrasena II, is a well known one in our period.

Powers of the King

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Kings were, as usual, the centre of all military, political, administrative and judicial powers. They no doubt governed with the assistance of a ministry, but the ultimate responsibility of a final decision rested with them. They were often their own commanders-in-chief and used to lead important military campaigns, as was done by Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Skandagupta. All viceroys, governors and important military and civil officers were appointed by, and responsible to them. The secretariat at the capital worked under their personal direction and supervision, and the provincial governors and their officers were under their control and guidance. They distributed titles and favours in recognition of meritorious service or literary and artistic works of distinction. To all appearance, kings were thus almost autocratic rulers, but in reality the case was considerably different. They shared their powers with ministers and other high officers who, though not theoretically responsible to the people, were expected to control the king, if he was acting against the established laws and customs.¹ Large powers were also delegated to local bodies like the village Panchāyats and town councils, which became fairly efficient and powerful after *c.* 400 A. D. Almost all functions of the government, except that of determining foreign policy and declaring and terminating a war, were discharged through the agency of the local bodies, where the representatives of the locality had a powerful voice. No doubt, there was no central popular assembly like the modern parliament; nevertheless people did not suffer from the evil consequences of autocracy owing to the above delegation of large powers to the local bodies. Smṛitis and epigraphs of our period emphasise that a good king should be particularly careful in winning popularity among his subjects by respecting their wishes and promoting their welfare,² and there is every reason to believe that the rulers lived up to this ideal. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien seems to be paraphrasing the language of some of the inscriptions of our age when he describes how the people under the Gupta rule were virtuous, happy and prosperous, and had no occasions to complain against the autocracy or high handedness of the government.

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¹ Purohita (chief priest), Senapati (commander-in-chief), ministers, ambassadors and spies are referred to as constituting 'The Great Fivefold Group' in early Tamil literature, *Muduraikkanji*, ll. 499, 510. They must obviously have exercised considerable influence over the king.

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² Cf. प्रजासंरंजनपरिपालनोधोगसंततसत्रदीक्षितस्य । *I. A.*, V. 51 *I. A.*, V, 51; see also *E. I.*, VII, 235

Central Government

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The Gupta records throw very little light on the nature of the machinery of the Central Government. We may, however, well presume that it was under the general supervision of a Chief Secretary called Sarvādhykasha in the contemporary Pallava, Vākāṭaka and Kadamba administrations. The secretariat in the capital accommodated a number of departments. Each office had its own seal with which its communications were invariably stamped for authentication. We have discovered the seals of several officers like those of Kumārāmātyas, Daṇḍanāyakas, Balādhikaraṇikas, etc. The routine business was transacted by each minister on his own responsibility, but important matters were referred to the whole council presided over by the king. Orders were issued by the government in writing. When on tour kings often used to pass oral orders, but they were noted by private secretaries on duty and communicated to the central secretariat for proper recording and appropriate action. The Gupta period term for private secretary Rahasi-niyukta looks like an exact translation of the corresponding English word. People seeking audience were ushered in by officers known as Pratīhāras or Mahāpratīhāras who were in charge of the court ceremonial.

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³ Cf. Legge: *A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms*, Chap. XVI with verses 6, 21-23 of the Junagadh inscription of Skandagupta, *C. I. I.*, III, 58. ff.

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The military department was the most important department under the direct charge of the king or the Yuvarāja. There were a large number of Mahāsenāpatis working under the king, probably posted in the different parts of the empire. Mahādaṇḍanāyaka, who belonged to the next lower grade, appears to have corresponded to the Lieutenant-General of the modern age. Daṇḍanāyakas were probably of the rank of colonels. The army had different quarter masters, (Raṇabhāṇḍāgārikas) and seals of some of them have been found. The fighting force was divided into infantry, cavalry and elephant corps; the officers of the latter two branches were known as Aśvapatis Mahāśvapatis, Pīlupatis, Mahāpīlupatis. Soldiers were provided with armours and fought with weapons like arrows, swords, battle axes, spears, etc. Our records do not refer to the ambulance corps, but it must have existed. The general structure of the military administration did not differ much from that of the Mauryan age.

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The foreign minister figures in several Gupta records; he however appears under a new name Mahāsandhivigrahika, which is no doubt more majestic than the old title Dūta. He worked in close cooperation with the military department. He must have been the busiest minister in the early Gupta period when Samudragupta and Chandragupta were planning their campaigns in the north, the south and the west. Which kingdoms were to be annexed and which were to be permitted to remain in the feudatory status was to be determined by this department. Mahāsandhivigrahika had several Sandhivigrahikas under him to assist him in the work.

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The designation of the head of the police department is not known. Daṇḍapāśikas, referred to in the seals from Vaiśālī, were probably officers of the police of the status of the modern police superintendents. Ordinary members of the police force were probably known as Chāṭa and Bhaṭa.

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The Revenue department was in charge of the collection of taxes and revenues, which were paid partly in cash and partly in kind. The government had to maintain big granaries at several places. Forests and mines, which were state properties, were probably administered by the Revenue department. The administration of the waste lands, which also were owned by the state, was left in charge of the municipal boards or the village councils in whose jurisdiction they were situated.

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The Judicial department is not mentioned in contemporary records, but its remarkable development during our period can be inferred by the evidence afforded by Smṛitis like those of Nārada and Bṛihaspati, written at about this time. Rules about plaints, written statements, relative importance of documentary and oral evidence, *res-judicata* etc., as disclosed in these works, are more developed and advanced than those in the *Arthaśāstra*. The Judicial department was presided over by the Chief Justice who was assisted by a number of city and town judges. The seals of the office of the Nyāyādhikaraṇa, Dharmādhikaraṇa and Dharmaśāsanādhikaraṇa that were found at Nālandā and Vaiśālī obviously belonged to the courts of these judges.

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The Ecclesiastical department was in charge of another minister, probably called Purodhā or Paṇḍita. This officer does not figure in our records, but his subordinates Vinayasthitisthāpakas are known from their seals. They seem to have discharged functions similar to those of the Dharmamahāmātras of Aśoka, *viz.* regulation of public morals, supervision of charity and temples and promotion of education.

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Trade and industry department was under another minister. He is not mentioned in our records, but his subordinate officers Drāṅgikas figure in contemporary inscriptions. This department was probably in charge of roads and rest-houses also.

Superior Services

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The Guptas had a superior civil service, corresponding to the I. C. S. and I. A. S. of the modern times. The members of this service were known as Kumārāmātyas. Scholars had once thought that Kumārāmātyas were ministers to the princes of the blood-royal, but a careful analysis of the epigraphical evidence shows that such was not the case. Harisheṇa, the foreign minister of Samudragupta, and Śikharasvāmin and Pṛithivīsheṇa, the ministers of Kumāragupta I, were working directly under the emperors, but are still described as Kumārāmātyas. District officers in Puṇḍravardhana were styled as Kumārāmātyas; nay, sometimes they are seen to be the subordinates of Mahādaṇḍanāyakas also. It is clear that Kumārāmātyas worked sometimes as the district officers, sometimes as government secretaries and were often promoted to the posts of ministers and generals. They thus resembled the Amātyas of the Maurya and Sātavāhana administration who filled similar posts. Why the term Kumāra was prefixed to their designation in this period is difficult to understand. They were so called probably because they were Amātyas since their youth, i.e. since the time of joining service. They were thus members of a superior service since recruitment and corresponded to the officers of the I. C. S. and I. A. S. grades of the modern time. Seals refer to Yuvarājapadīya-Kumārāmātyas and Paramabhaṭṭārakapadīya-Kumārāmātyas; they seem to be the officers of this cadre attached to the office of the heir-apparent and the emperor. The designation Kumārāmātya became fairly popular; we find the officers of this designation existing in Kathiawar under the Maitrakas of Valabhī and in some local dynasties of Orissa¹.

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¹ *C. I. I.*, III. 165; *E. I.*, XXIII. 201; XI. 287.

Provincial and District Administrations

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Provinces of the Gupta empire were known as Deśas² or Maṇḍalas. Three of these are referred to in our records, Surāshṭra, Mālwā and Antarvedī (the territory between the Yamunā and the Narmadā). We may well presume that Pañchāla, Kāśi, Kośala, Magadha and Vaṅga may have been among the remaining provinces of the empire. The Junagad inscription of Skandagupta shows that the viceroys of the provinces were appointed by the emperor himself. They had to maintain law and order and protect their territory against outside attacks. They were to develop their provinces by constructing and repairing works of public utility like tanks and roads and strengthen the foundations of the empire by promoting public confidence by their good and efficient administration. They could appoint their subordinate officers. Probably they had branches of almost all the departments working at their centre. Whether they had provincial ministries as under the Mauryas, we do not know.

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² Cf. सर्वेषु देशेषु विधाय गोप्तॄन् । *C. I. I.*, III. 66

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Provinces were divided into Bhuktis which appear to have comprised of two or three districts; the latter were called Vishayas. Puṇḍravardhana-bhukti included the districts of Bogra, Dinajpur and Rajashahi in northern Bengal, Magadha-bhukti of the districts of Gaya and Patna ; Tīra-bhukti included most of the Tirhut division of the present day. Bhuktis were in charge of officers known as Uparikas, who were appointed by and responsible to the emperor himself. They often had the title Mahārāja, probably when they were scions of the earlier ruling families. Vishayas were governed by Vishayapatis who were appointed sometimes by the Uparaikas, and sometimes by the emperor. Several sealings of the officers of the Vishayas and Bhuktis have been found, which had once sealed confidential despatches sent from their offices. It is difficult to state whether in the Gupta empire there were any administrative divisions intervening between the Vishaya and towns and villages comprised within it. They are not mentioned in Gupta inscriptions, but figure in later records. We have already seen that they existed in the the Mauryan administration. Their non-occurrence in Gupta records is probably accidental.

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The subordinate staff of the district administration consisted of officers described as Yuktas, Niyuktaś, Vyāpṛitaś, and Adhikṛitas in our records; they served as links betwen the district and the village. Officers of the police, forest and trade departments probably worked under them.

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¹ The first two of these designations were in use under the Mauryas also, as shown already.

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There is ample evidence supplied by the Damodarpur plates to show that the office of the Vishayapati was well organised and used to keep careful records and files. The officer in charge of the records was called Pustapāla; his records could show the precise dimensions of bands, both cultivated and uncultivated, situated within his jurisdiction. Even when waste lands were proposed to be sold by the central government, the district authorities had to be consulted. In some cases copper plates granting such lands bear the seals of the district administration as a proof of its concurrence.

Non-Official District Councils

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There was no body like the Central Parliament in the Gupta administration to voice the views of the people at the capital. But there is evidence to show that there were district councils to advise and assist the district administration; this seems to have been an administrative innovation of the age. This council consisted of the chief banker, the chief trader, the chief artisan, the chief Kāyastha (writer) and several other members. The Faridpur plate III shows that the district council often consisted of about 20 members, some of whom like Kulasvāmin and Śubhadeva were Brāhmaṇas, some like Ghoshachandra and Guṇachandra were non-Brahmins. Members of this non-official council were called Vishayamahattaras. Seals of the councils of Vishaya-mahattaras have been found at Nālandā.

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How the members of the Vishayamahattara council were selected or elected is not stated in the Gupta records. The terms Prathamaśreshthin and Prathamasārthavāha suggest that very probably the guilds of the bankers and traders were represented by their presidents. As far as the remaining members of the council are concerned, it would appear that different classes were represented by those persons among them who had acquired a pre-eminent status by their age, experience and character.

The Village and Town Administration

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The village administration was in charge of a headman designated as a Grāmeyaka or a Grāmādhyaksha. He had a clerk to work under him to keep the records. The headman was assisted in his work by a non-official council. The members of this body were known as Mahattaras under the Vākāṭakas and Pallavas and probably had the same designation under the Guptas. The village councils were known as Janapadas in the Gupta administration. A large number of village janapada seals have been found at Nālandā belonging to the Gupta period. Letters sent to outsiders communicating the decisions of the village councils were usually stamped with their seals. There is no indication as to how the members of the village Janapadas were selected ; the term Mahattara would suggest that senior persons of the different classes, who had acquired a pre-eminent status by their character, experience and age, were elevated to the village council by general approval.

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The village council looked after the village defence, settled village disputes, organised works of public utility, acted as a trustee for minors, collected government revenues and paid them into the treasury. Village lands were carefully measured and the boundaries were accurately fixed. Villages were protected by walls and ditches. Agriculture was the main occupation of the villagers, but each village had its own complement of weavers, potters, carpenters, oil-pressers and gold-smiths.

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An officer named Purapāla was in charge of the town administration; he corresponded to the Nagaravyavahārkas of the Mauryan age. He often belonged to the cadre of the Kumārāmātyas. Very probably he also was assisted by a popular council similar to the village council in composition and functions. Gupta records show that the townsmen of the age were particular about water supply, town halls, recreation gardens, etc.¹, and the town councils took the necessary steps to satisfy their expectations. Most of the towns were protected by walls and moats.

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¹ *C. I. I.*, III. p. 75

Taxation

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It is unfortunate that Gupta records should supply very little information about the taxation. We may, however, well presume that the taxes current under other contemporary dynasties like the Vākāṭakas and the Kadambas were also imposed by the Guptas. Land tax was the main source of government revenue. It was known as Bhāgakara in some localities and Udraṅga in others; its incidence varied from 16 to 25%. It was usually collected in kind. Octroi duties were another important source of revenue; they were collected both in kind and cash. Excise taxes had to be paid on oil, cloth and similar commodities. States claimed ownership in waste lands, forests, pastures and mines and derived considerable income by letting them out or selling their produce. When the touring officers of the state visited villages, the public had to provide them the necessary rations and transport free of cost.

General Review

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The Gupta administration was on the whole well organised, both at the centre and in the provinces. The central secretariat worked efficiently and could keep itself well informed about the happenings in the districts and villages. Oral orders of kings given during tours were verified and recorded. Lands were carefully measured and there was an accurate record of their ownership.

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Gupta government could secure safety to its subjects both from foreign invasions and internal disturbances for a long time. As observed by the Chinese pilgrim, Fa Hien, it did not put restrictions on the movements of people unless they endangered public safety. In the administration of criminal law there was a happy combination of justice and humanity; criminals were punished promptly but the punishments were not inhuman.

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Apart from maintaining law and order, the government developed the resources of the country as well. Its trade department no doubt collected octroi duties, but also promoted commerce by securing safety of roads and by establishing a gold currency of international standard. Mines and forests were developed. Agriculture was promoted by the construction and repairs of tanks and reservoirs; and the state afforded facilities by bringing waste lands under cultivation. Its activities were probably as diverse as those of the Mauryan state. The non-mention of some of the Mauryan departments seems to be accidental. Thus the superintendent of the mint (*Lashaṇadāyaksha*) of the *Arthaśāstra*, does not figure in Gupta records, but no student of numismatics can dissent from the view that the mint department of the Guptas, which issued the most artistic coins of the ancient period, must have been much more extensive and well organised than that of the Mauryas, which issued only the punch-marked coins.

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Government, however, was not content merely with promoting material prosperity of its citizens; it tried to promote their moral and spiritual welfare also by appointing sepecial religious inspectors. Donees of Brahmadeya villages were particularly required to set high moral standards, so as to become an example to others. State extended its patronage impartially to Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Though there is no direct evidence upon the point, we can well presume that the Gupta state tried to keep an even balance between the conflicting interests of the different classes.

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There was no central parliament to control the king and ministers, but traditional rules about their duties and the high ideals that were placed before them in semi-religious works were sufficiently effective to curb tyrannical tendencies. Government, moreover, was remarkably decentralised, and most of its functions were transferred to the district administration. In the district headquarters, the officers of the central government were assisted and controlled by popular councils of Mahattaras, whose concurrence was necessary even if the state wanted to sell the waste land of its own. Villages had their own councils, which functioned as corporate bodies and administered all the branches of its administration, including the settlement of civil disputes and the collection of taxes.

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People were virtuous, rich and prosperous; cities were teeming with population. The poor and the sick were offered free relief and medicine in hospitals and charitable institutions. Peace and prosperity secured by the government led to rich and remarkable development of art, literature, philosophy and science. The administration had thus promoted both moral and material progress of the people.

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