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State and Government in Ancient India c8.s1: The Name of the Science

State and Government in Ancient India c8.s1

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The Name of the Science

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In ancient India the political science was known by several terms like the Rājādharma, Rājyaśāstra, Daṇḍanīti Nītiśāstra and Arthaśāstra. Some of these terms like the Rājādharma¹ ‘Duties of the king’ and Rājyaśāstra², ‘Science of the state’ require no explanation. Monarchy was the normal form of the state and the science of politics and government was therefore naturally called Rājādharma or Rājyaśāstra. The term Daṇḍanīti also is self-explanatory. Like many thinkers of the modern time, some Indian writers like Manu held that the ultimate sanction behind the state is force. If it is not used, the alternative is the law of the jungle (*mātsyanyāya*). It is Daṇḍa (physical force or physical punishment) which rules over all the subjects, it is Daṇḍa which protects them; when all else are sleeping, Daṇḍa keeps awake; law is nothing but Daṇḍa itself.³ Daṇḍa, however, must be wielded with discretion. If it is used too harshly, the subjects are distressed; if it is used too lightly, the king will not be held in awe; if it is used in the proper manner,⁴ the subjects are happy and the realm progresses.

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¹ This term is used by Manu and other Smṛiti writers.

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² *Mbh.* XII. 1. 58-63 uses this term.

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³ दण्डः शास्ति प्रजाः सर्वा दण्ड एवाभिरक्षति । दण्डः सुप्तेषु जागर्ति दण्डं धर्मं विदुर्बुधाः ॥ VIII. 14.

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⁴ तीक्ष्णदण्डो हि भूतानामुद्वेजनीयः । मृदुदण्डः परिभूयते । यथार्हदण्ड. पूज्यः । *Arthaśāstra*, I, 1. Cf. also *Manu*, VII. 19,27.

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Some writers like Kauṭilya, however, do not understand Daṇḍa in a narrow sense. They point out that punishment or threat of punishment is not to be viewed only in its prohibitive aspect. It establishes law and order in society and thus indirectly brings about a natural tendency in the average individual to obey the law of the land, which renders the frequent use of force unnecessary. It ultimately secures proper progress in religion, philosophy and economic well-being,¹ so necessary for social stability. Daṇḍa enables the individual and the state to have new achievements to their credit, to protect and increase what has been acquired and to distribute the gains properly as between the state and the individuals, as also among the individuals themselves. The entire social well-being is thus dependent upon it. Daṇḍanīti thus deals with the totality of social, political and economic relationships and indicates how they are to be properly organised and integrated with one another. All relationship, says, Uśanas, is rooted in the Daṇḍanīti (*Mbh.* XII. 62. 28-9).

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¹ आन्वीक्षकीत्रयीवार्तानां योगक्षमसाधनो दण्डः। तस्य नीतिर्दण्डनीतिः। अलब्धलाभार्था लब्धपरिरक्षिणी रक्षितविवर्धनी वृद्धस्य तीर्थेषु प्रतिपादिनी। I. 4. *Cf. also* *Mbh.* XII 59. 78-9.

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Manu goes to the extent of declaring that it is Daṇḍa who is the real king, the real leader and the real protector.² The rules about the functions and duties of the king and the welfare of the state were therefore naturally called Daṇḍanīti.

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² स राजा पुरुषो दण्डः स नेता शासिता च सः। VII. 17.

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The works on the science of politics written by Uśanas³ and Prajāpati were known as Daṇḍanīti; it will be soon shown (p. 4) how the *Arthaśāstra* of Kauṭilya also was known by that term.

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³ स च औशनस्यां दण्डनीतौ परं प्राविण्यमुपगतः। *Mudrārākshasa*, Act I.

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The next term we have to consider is Nītiśāstra. Nīti is derived from the root *nī* to lead; Nīti therefore means proper guidance or direction. It was held that this would become possible by following the ethical course of conduct and therefore one connotation of the term Nītiśāstra was the science of ethics. Proper guidance or direction usually presupposes propriety, prudence and wisdom; so Nītiśāstra also came to denote the science of wisdom and right course. Bhartṛihari used the term in this sense when he described one of his books as Nītiśataka. Greatest propriety, wisdom and circumspection have, however, to be shown in shaping and guiding the internal and foreign policy of the State, and so the term Nītiśāstra became very popular to designate the science of government from about the 5th century A. D. Kāmandaka and Śukra prefer to call their works as books on Nīti and not on Daṇḍanīti or Arthaśāstra. Lakshmīdhara (1150 A.D.), Annambhaṭṭa (1200 A.D.) Chaṇḍeśvara (1350 A.D.), Nīlakaṇṭha and Mitramiśra (1625 A.D.) call the relevant books of their digests as Nītikalpataru, Nītichandrikā, Nītiratnākara, Nītimayūkha and Nītiprakāśa respectively, and not as Arthaśāstra-Kalpataru or Rājadharma-ratnākara, Rājyaśāstramayūkha or Daṇḍanītiprakāśa. The aim of the government is to secure all round progress and prosperity of society and the same was taken to be the scope of Nītiśāstra. Śukra points out how Nītiśāstra is a *sine qua non* for the stability and progress of society in all directions and how it enables the realisation of the four-fold goals connected with Dharma, Artha, Kāma and Moksha.¹

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¹ सर्वोपनीतर्कं लोकस्थितिकृन्नीतिशास्त्रकम्। धर्मार्थकाममलं हि स्मृतं मोक्षप्रदं यतः ॥ I. 5.

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Arthaśāstra is the next term for the science of politics which we have now to consider. The usual meaning of the term Artha is money or wealth and so the term Arthaśāstra should connote the science of wealth or economics, and not the science of government. While conceding that Artha denotes the avocations of men, Kauṭilya contends that the term also can denote the territory where the people live together. Arthaśāstra, therefore, says Kauṭilya, is the science which deals with the acquisition and protection or governance of territory.² This explanation to justify the use of the term Arthaśāstra for the science of politics appears to be rather forced and far-fetched. But posterity has acquiesced in the term primarily because the most important book on the science of politics is known as Arthaśāstra. Thus the *Śukranītisāra* states that the *Arthaśāstra* discusses instructions about the government along with the acquisition of wealth (IV. 5. 56.). A perusal of the opening chapter of Kauṭilya's *Arthaśāstra* would show that the author had originally intended to christian his book as a Daṇḍanīti; later on he seems to have changed his mind and decided to call it as Arthaśāstra. The explanation and justification of the term Arthaśāstra occurs only in the last chapter of the work. In its colophon the work is called simply as Śāstra; it can be an abbreviation of Arthaśāstra as well as of Daṇḍanītiśāstra. It is interesting to note that the work was known to Daṇḍin as Daṇḍanīti¹ and not as Arthaśāstra. The *Amarakosha* also equates Daṇḍanīti with Arthaśāstra as also the *Mitāksharā* on Yājñayalkya I, 311 and 313.

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² मनुष्याणां वृत्तिरर्थः, मनुष्यवती भूमिरर्थः, तस्याः पृथिव्या लाभपालनोपायः शास्त्रमर्थशास्त्रमिति। Bk. XV, Chap. 1.

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¹ अधोष्व तावद्दण्डनीतिम्। इयन्निदानीमाचार्यविष्णुगुप्तेन मौर्य्यार्थे षड्भिः श्लोकसहस्रैः संक्षिप्ता। *Book* 1.

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To conclude, in the early stages of the development of the science, it was known as Rājadharma; Daṇḍanīti became a more popular term a little later, and Arthaśāstra was suggested as an alternative to it. In course of time, however, the word Rājañīti-śāstra, abridged into Nītiśāstra became most popular and gradually supplanted the other terms.

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