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The World of Courtesans c5: 2 Courtesans in Buddhist Literature

The World of Courtesans c5

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2 Courtesans in Buddhist Literature

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VEDIC LITERATURE DOES not offer us abundant source material for a reconstruction of the social history of India. Extracting information from mere words is an arduous etymological exercise, and besides, interpretations often lack general acceptance. On the contrary, Buddhist literature, though verbose and repetitious, yields valuable data about the social institutions of ancient India. The virtues and failings of people are recorded in stories and parables which form an integral part of Indian literature. The picture which they paint of the urban culture, of the flourishing cities, of the time peopled by men of all castes and professions, merchants, shopkeepers, rulers and their officers is both real and convincing.

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In Buddhist literature women receive full attention. The general concept of the housewife is that she should be blessed with an equable, obedient temperament. She was expected to be sweet of speech, fair and renowned, capable of bearing a huge family, and of course, subservient to the wishes of her lord. We read, however, that for rich men a woman was nothing more than an instrument of pleasure and for an average householder she was merely the producer of a large family.

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The *Jatakas* condemn women and their wickedness. A woman approves of her husband's absence from home and is not pleased at his return. She speaks ill of him, and is silent when he is praised. She neglects his interests and performs acts that are not at all to his liking. She sleeps by his side fully clothed, with her face averted; she changes her sides frequently, frets, sighs and tries to leave the bed. She listens to perverse advice and does not mind squandering her husband's wealth to gain a new lover. She builds intimate ties with her neighbour, walks along the streets, exposing herself to the glances of passers by and stands at the door looking aimlessly at the scene on the street. She insults her husband. As a matter of fact the characteristics of a wicked woman mentioned in the *Jatakas* are the same as those indicated in the *Kamasutra* of Vatsyayana. According to the *Jatakas* there are eight reasons why a woman despises her husband: poverty, sickness, old age, habitual drunkenness, recklessness, dullness, overwork and the lack of a sense of obligation. A wife is to be condemned if she frequents parks, gardens and river banks, and pays frequent visits to the houses of relatives or strangers, if she wears a smart vest-cloth, if she is addicted to strong drinks and if she stares vacantly at the scene outside the house, standing at her own door.

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The bodily movements and behaviour of a woman in love have not escaped the attention of the *Jatakas*. In the spirit of the *Kamasutra* they describe how a wicked woman draws herself, bends down, tries to appear coy and presses her fingertips. She plants one foot over the other and scratches the ground with a stick. Her son is also made to play a part in this unholy game of love. She swings him up and down, plays with him, kisses him, feeds herself and him. She gives or begs, mimicks others and speaks in either a high or a low tone. She draws the attention of her lover with dance, song and music, tears and blandishments. But if these soft avowals of love fail to evoke any response she shows her fury. She laughs at him, derides him, she shakes her dress or shifts the folds of her *sari*, exposes or covers up her legs, displays her armpits and navel. She closes her eyes, knits her eyebrows, tightly presses her lips, she pulls out her tongue, loosens or tightens her dress and headgear.

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Apart from the employment of courtesans by kings, their chief patrons seem to have been rich merchants and bankers who had amassed wealth and could afford the luxury of accomplished courtesans. The harem (*antahpura*, *orodha*) or inner apartment of the palace was a well-built structure, painted and plastered inside and provided with all kinds of luxuries. It is said to have employed the conventional number of sixteen thousand dancing girls (*natakitthiyo*) These courtesans were always at the disposal of the king forming an integral part of the seraglio, and they were often handed down from father to son. They attended and accompanied them to the royal garden. It is related in the *Khantivadi Jataka* that once king Kalabu was drunk and he came into the park in great pomp surrounded by a group of dancing girls. There he had a couch spread on the royal seat of stone and lay with his head on the lap of his favourite; the other dancing girls, skilled in vocal and instrumental music and in dancing gave a musical performance.

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In order to understand the position of those courtesans who practised their profession independently of the royal court the references in the *Jatakas* to their mode of life are of some interest In the *Muhasara Jataka* the chief musician is supposed to have received a stolen necklace from the royal chaplain and handed it over to a courtesan as a present.

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In the *Vattaka Jataka*, the function of a courtesan as a temptress is stressed. At the time of the Kattika festival, the friends of the son of an Over-Treasurer decided to employ a courtesan to divert him from the path of righteousness and self-abnegation. They did not keep their plan secret but informed their friend that they were planning to get a sweetheart for him. They picked up a charming girl and asked her to proceed to his chamber. She did so, but failed to evoke any response from him. Piqued at this slight she uses all her blandishments, smiling and flashing her lovely white teeth. Unmoved, he gave her money and asked her to leave him. As she was leaving his house, she met a nobleman in the street who asked her to accompany him and offered her money. This almost resulted in a debacle, for the courtesan's mother, finding that her daughter had not returned home after the festival, filed a complaint against the Over-Treasurer's son. The king, after hearing the case, ordered his execution, unless he was able to produce the girl. As the Over- Treasurer’s son was being led to the execution ground, the girl heard the commotion and saw him being led to death. She rushed out, revealed her identity to the officers and thus saved his life.

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In the *Gamani Chanda Jataka*, it is related that in the course of his adventures Gamani Chanda reached a village where a courtesan (*ganika*) lived. When she found out that he intended to visit the king, she requested him to carry her message to him, "I used to make great gains before; now I don't get the worth of a betel-nut, and nobody courts me." He was requested to obtain an answer to this query. After Gamani met the king he conveyed to him the courtesan's message and received the following answer. "The woman used formerly to take a price from the hand of one, and not to go with another until she was off with him, and that is how she used to receive much. Now she has changed her manner, and without leave of the first she goes with the last, so that she receives nothing, and none seek after her. If she keeps to her old custom, it will be as it was before."

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In another *Jataka*, a courtesan (*vannadasi*) is said to have received a thousand pieces from a youth who only visited her once and then disappeared. She, for honour's sake, did not accept new clients and gradually became poor. Unable to bear her poverty any longer, she went to the Chief Justice to seek his advice and was told to return to her former profession.

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The *Indriya Jataka*, mentions of courtesans sitting along the banks of a river in which many men bathed. The *Atthana Jataka* relates how a courtesan charged a thousand pieces a day from a merchant. One day he forgot to bring her fees and was driven away by her maids. Shocked at this kind of treatment from her, he turned an ascetic. When the king learnt this, he ordered her to bring him back. She entreated him but he refused to return.

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A curious story of the cupidity of courtesans is related in the *Mahavastu* iii. 35-38. The chief courtesan (*agraganika*) of a city used to invite a clever, handsome person to sleep with her. She did this after oiling his body, applying perfumed powder and unguents to it and draping it with fine garments made in Kasi. Once a banker's son was seen quarreling with her He had offered her a hundred thousand pieces for spending a night with her, but she had refused the offer on the plea that she had already received her fees from somebody else. The poor lover told her the next day that he had passed the night dreaming that they were united in love. She at once demanded her fees (*bhatakam*) from him. The poor man was thunderstruck and refused to pay but she stuck to her demand. Other people tried to intervene and stop the quarrel but it was of no avail. Thereupon the members of the negama of Kampilla asked one Prajnavanta to adjudge the claim of the contestants The resourceful man ordered a mirror and a hundred thousand pieces to be brought into the room. He asked the banker's son to hold the basket with the money against the mirror and he told the courtesan to receive the reflection.

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In the *Kanavera Jataka*, the love of a courtesan for a robber is recounted. It is said that once there lived a mighty robber in the city of Banaras. Enraged at his doings, the king ordered him to be seized and executed. He was arrested by the city governor, and while being led to the execution ground, Sama, a famous courtesan of Banaras saw him. Her price as usual was a thousand pieces a day. She was also the king's favourite and served by five hundred female slaves (*vannadasiyo*). The robber was handsome and she fell in love with him at first sight. In order to secure his release she sent a thousand pieces to the governor who was prepared to release him provided somebody else could be substituted for him. Sama persuaded one of her lovers to go to the governor with the bribe for the release of her so-called brother. The governor took the hint and after sending the robber in a closed carriage to Sama, he had the lover quietly executed.

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Sama passed her time joyfully in the company of the robber but he always suspected her and thought that she might get him murdered if she found another lover. Therefore, he decided to leave her after robbing her ornaments. One day he suggested to her that they spend the day in a garden, and in order to please him she prepared every kind of delicacy, and adorning herself with ornaments, accompanied him to the garden. There the robber made a show of violent affection for her, and as she lay unconscious, he bolted with her ornaments.

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Unmindful of his perfidy, Sama waited for his return. She discarded her costly garments, scents and garlands. She sent a band of actors to search for him. In the city where the robber lived, the actors sang a song expressing the yearnings of Sama. The robber who chanced to be in the crowd heard the song but refused to return. Full of regrets Sama reverted to her old coarse of life.

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The *Sulasa Jataka*, recounts the infatuation of a courtesan for a robber. Sulasa, a renowned courtesan of Banaras, lived with five hundred slave girls in her train. She charged a thousand pieces per night from her customers. Her story is practically the same as that of Sama. But unlike Sama, Sulasa was a woman of wisdom and courage. Her robber lover, after living happily with her for a few months, decided to steal her ornaments and leave her. One day, under the pretext of offering a sacrifice to a tree deity, he persuaded Sulasa to deck herself with ornaments and to come with him. When they reached the top of a mountain where the tree was situated, he threatened to kill and rob her. Fearing for her life, she reminded him of the good she had done him and promised to give him all her ornaments if he spared her life. But the robber was determined to carry out his nefarious design. Sulasa was very resourceful. Under the pretext of a last embrace she pushed him down to his death from the hill top and then returned to the city.

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The *Takkariya Jataka* throws some interesting light on the life of a courtesan. Kali, a famous courtesan (*nagara-shobhani*) of Banaras earned a thousand pieces a day, which her brother Tundila, a debauchee, a drunkard, and a gambler, took from her and wasted. She could not restrain him or make him give up his habits. One day her brother lost all his clothes in a gambling match. Wrapping himself in a tattered loin cloth, Tundila went to his sister's house, but ordered by her, the serving maids threw him out. As he lay in the street bemoaning his fate, one of the customers of Kali saw him and taking pity on him promised to plead for him with his sister. He kept his promise, but Kali refused to give anything to her profligate brother and told her lover that he was at liberty to give him whatever he liked

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In that house of ill-fame (*gaṇikāghara*), the custom was that of every one thousand received, four hundred went to the courtesan and five hundred was spent on clothes, perfumes and garlands It was also the custom that the clients who visited that house received garments to wear (when they stayed the night there) which they took off when they left. Kali's lover, out of sheer generosity, put on the clothes received from the house and gave away his own to Tundila. Kali felt insulted. The next day when her lover asked for his clothes, Kali ordered her servants to eject him from the house and he had to return to his home naked and humiliated.

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But in spite of being secretly appreciated, courtesans were called harlots, wenches, street walkers and even murderesses. Enumerating their wicked acts a story-teller describes them in verse.

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*Like poisoned draught or robber fell, crooked as horn*
*of stag,*
*Like serpent evil-tongued are they, as merchant*
*apt to brag,*
*Murderous as covered pit, like Hell's insatiate maw*
*are they,*
*As goblin greedy or like Death that carries all away.*
*Devouring like a flame are they, mighty as wind or flood,*
*Like Neru's golden peak that aye confuses bad and good,*
*Pernicious as a poison-tree they fivefold ruin bring,*
*On household gear, wasters of wealth and every*
*precious thing*

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The above stories supplemented by other stray references in the *Jatakas* give a convincing picture of the life and doings of courtesans. Apparently they were held in great favour by kings and merchants. A king could depose a *ganika* and then restore her to position. They contracted a relationship with court musicians and lived in great style. Apparently no stigma was attached to consorting with courtesans. Expressions like a "vile trade" (*nichakamma*), "a house of ill-fame" (*ganikaghara*), "this bad life of mine" (*kilittha*), and a "low woman" (*duritthi kumbhadasi*) show that the moral aspect of the profession was not lost sight of.

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Whether she evoked pity or whether she was condemned, the courtesan flourished and no stigma seems to have been attached to the profession. The flourishing conditions of courtesans cannot be ascribed to the unhappy domestic lives of householders but to the growth of luxury due to the accumulation of capital. There was a decided preference for physical charms, for a luxurious way of living, unfettered by the annoying restrictions of life at home and above all there was admiration for accomplishment in the various arts (arts which busy housewives were hardly expected to acquire). We hear:

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*With wives chaste, faithful and of high degree,*
*A man may circumspect and prudent be,*
*May curb his passions well in such a case,*
*Yet in some harlot his whole trust may place.*

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The wide prevalence of prostitution may be seen from the use in Buddhist literature of a large number of synonyms indicating prostitutes and courtesans. Mehta has culled the following words from the *Jatakas*—*vesi*, *nariyo*, *gamaniyo*, *ganika*, *nagarashobhani*, *vannadasi* and *kumbhadasi*.

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Devraj Chanana while discussing the meaning of some of these terms, says for instance that if a dispute arose in an oligarchy for the hand of a beautiful girl, the elders asked her to become a *ganika* so as to make her accessible to all (*sabbesamvoharika*). The oligarchy paid her some money to establish herself in the profession. She received a stipulated fee from the clients who visited her. Salavati of Rajagriha was elected a *ganik-thana* and she was counted among the important citizens. The *ganika* had an important position in the king's court. She was also called *vannadasi* or *nagarashobhani*. In some texts, however, *nagarashobhani* stands for a common harlot, while in other instances she is equated with a *ganika*. *Ganikas* abandoned their male children, but brought up their daughters with great care in the hope that in due course they would take to their own profession. Such women employed a large number of slaves.

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Chanana is of the view that *vannadasi* was a slave in the establishment of a *ganika*, but in certain cases the word stood for a common prostitute. In the *Jatakas* her personal status was not always the same. Some *ganikas* were rich, others poor. Perhaps the *vannadasi*, as a slave woman in the establishment of a *ganika*, received less affluent visitors and thus earned money for her mistress. It is also possible that a *vannadasi* could attain to the position of a *ganika* The professional musicians who accompanied these women were known as *gandhabbas*. As a matter of fact a class of prostitutes in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar claims to belong to the *gandharab* caste.

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Though the institution of *ganikas* was started by the *ganas*, the case of Salavati who is called the *ganika* of Rajagriha (which was under a monarchy) shows that the word had lost its specific meaning and implied a rich courtesan. It is possible that the community of rich merchants who were growing ever richer under the monarchies, wanted the best of everything in their towns, and, therefore, they borrowed the institution of *ganikas* from the oligarchies. Later, with the decay of the oligarchies, the word *ganika* lost its original significance.

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*Vesiya* seems to have been different from *ganika* as is evident from such references as *vesi cha ganikayo cha*. One gets the impression from Pali literature that the *vesiya* plied her trade alone and lived by selling her charms. As a matter of fact Buddhaghosa equates *vesiya* with *rupajiva* i.e., a seller of charm. She did not possess the artistic talents of the *ganika*. She pandered to the common people and, at times, even stooped to steal. She was no doubt a much poorer creature, who, it is mentioned, was forced because of her poverty to proceed to the river for her bath and could not afford servants to fetch water for her toilet.

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*Itthi* in some *Jatakas* also denotes a prostitute (J. 1. 43) and at the time of a festival an *itthi* was hired by the sons of a *setthi*. She was supposed to be a mistress as opposed to a lawful wife. A girl of pleasure engaged for a short duration is called *muhuttika* (*Vin.* III. 138). The fees of prostitutes are known as *bhati* and *paribbayam*. It is not known how they were established in business, but it is possible to suggest from a reference (*Vin.* II. 267) that houses of ill-fame were run by some people to make profits. It is said that six degenerate nuns ran a brothel. The word *kumbhadasi* while standing for a slave woman, also indicated a woman with loose morals. She was an expert in dance and music.

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Reference has already been made to courtesans such as Sama, Sulasa and Kali who commanded a high position in society. There were, however, other courtesans who were renowned in Buddhist literature and who made handsome contributions to the early Buddhist church. Ambapali, a courtesan, is said (according to the Pali version of the story) to have emerged spontaneously in the gardens of the king at Vesali. Since she was picked up at the foot of a mango tree she was named after the mango (*amba*). The gardener brought her to the city, and in course of time her beauty attracted many young men who vied with one another for the honour of her hand. According to the prevailing custom the *gana*, in order to stop the rivalry among eligible young men, appointed her a *ganika*. It is observed in the *Mahavagga*, VIII. 1.1. that at Vesali "there was also the courtesan Ambapalika, who was beautiful, pleasant, gifted with the highest beauty of complexion, well versed in dancing, singing and lute-playing and visited by men who desired her. She asked for fifty *kahapanas* for one night. Through her Vesali flourished." It is further suggested that she was indirectly instrumental in establishing the institution of *ganikas* in Rajagriha (*Mahavagga*, VIII. 1, 2). A merchant from Rajagriha went to Vesali on business and found it to be a populous city with abundant food, and tall buildings. After his business was over, the merchant returned to Rajagriha and met the Magadha king Seniya Bimbisara and requested him to install a courtesan at Rajagriha as well, in order to increase its prosperity.

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Ambapali's devotion to Buddha has been emphasized in Pali literature. It is stated in the *Mahavagga*, VI. 18,30 that when Ambapali heard of the arrival of the Buddha at Kotigama she mounted a magnificent vehicle and, accompanied by a large retinue, proceeded to meet the Blessed One. The carriage could only pass where the ground was level, so she got down and walked the rest of the distance on foot to see the Buddha. After saluting him she sat down close to him. She was impressed by his sermon, and asked the Buddha and the fraternity of *bhikkhus* to dine at her house and he accepted her invitation.

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Now the Lichchhavis of Vesali, hearing of the arrival of the Buddha, also proceeded to meet him. They were in colourful garments and wore costly ornaments. While returning from her visit to the Buddha, Ambapali was so elated at the idea of having the Buddha to a meal the next day, that she refused to make way for the Lichchhavi princes, who were on their way to see the Buddha. She refused to give up her invitation for anything in the world

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In the *Vinayavastu* of *Mulasarvastivada*, however, the story of Ambapali has received greater attention. It is related that in Vesali the Lichchhavi Mahanama had a mango grove. There suddenly sprang up a plantain tree which blossomed in course of time. A soothsayer informed Mahanama that on the seventh day the flowers would bring forth a girl. Mahanama marvelled at the prophecy and placed guards round the tree. On the seventh day the garden was swept, sprinkled with sandal water and decorated with incense burners, real silk and flowers, and it resounded with the sound of music. Mahanama entered the grove with his wives and his relatives, and amidst the rejoicing the plantain tree burst open and there emerged a very beautiful girl, who was handed over to the chief wife of Mahanama. She was named Amrapali as she had come forth from a mango grove (*amravana*). Then Amrapali was taken to Mahanama's house where in course of time she grew up to be a very beautiful young woman. Not only the Kraunchas, the Sakyas and princes from different lands, but also the sons of ministers, wealthy men, bankers and merchants came to seek her hand in marriage. Seeing the crowd, Mahanama was perplexed and feared the wrath of those who were likely to be disappointed. Even the Gana had as yet not made any rules to deal with such a situation and, therefore, he decided to approach the *Gana* for help.

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The *Gana* was summoned and Mahanama addressed it thus: "Hear me you Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, in my garden was born a girl, she was adopted and nurtured by me. Now I am in search of a suitable match from a good family for her." The *Gana* informed him that according to the rules framed by them an independent (*anirvaha*) beautiful girl (*striratnam*) was for the pleasure of the entire *Gana*. Mahanama was then asked by the *Gana* to produce Amrapali before the *Gana* and he did so. Her beauty dazzled all the members of the *Gana* and they proclaimed unanimously that she was the preserve of the entire *Gana* and therefore, the question of marrying her to any one person did not arise.

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Mahanama was very dejected when he heard the decision of the *Gana*. Amrapali also learnt the outcome of the meeting of the *Gana*, and agreed to become a *ganabhogya* if the *Gana* was ready to accept five conditions that she made. These were: (1) The allocation of a residence in the first division of the city. (2) If one client was with her, the entry of a second client was strictly prohibited. (3) The client had to pay her five hundred *karshapanas* as her fees. (4) If there was a search ordered by the *Gana* her house could be searched only on the seventh day after the warrant had been issued. (5) The entry and exit to her house were not to be watched.

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Mahanama conveyed her conditions to the *Gana* and they readily accepted them on the plea that a courtesan, in keeping with her position, was entitled to stay in the first division of the city. The second stipulation was agreed upon for it meant less quarreling between clients. As regards the third condition, the fees of five hundred a day was agreed upon for it covered the expenses for clothes and ornaments. Regarding the search of her house, the time factor, according to the *Gana*, did not matter. The last stipulation was also accepted on the plea that if the entry and exit to her house were to be watched, nobody would care to visit her for fear of exposure.

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After the acceptance of her terms by the *Gana*, Amrapali became a courtesan and began receiving the Lichchhavi clients. Some of them were such wretches that to see or touch them was obnoxious to her. She found that some of her clients were impotent. She, however, seems to have been a psychologist of some sort, for to assess her clients she hit upon a clever device. She invited painters from all over the country and asked them to paint realistic portraits of kings, ministers, bankers, merchants etc., on the walls of the picture gallery of her mansion. After the portraits were completed she inspected them and on this basis chose her clients She was impressed by king Bimbisara of Magadha. She thought he was a man fit to consort with her.

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It so happened that one day Bimbisara was seated on the palace terrace talking to his ministers. In the course of their conversation he asked them to describe the courtesans they had seen. One of the ministers praised the beauty and youth of Amrapali and her accomplishment in the sixty-four arts. Bimbisara was warned that he would incur the hostility of the Lichchhavis if he cast his eyes on her. But he proceeded with his minister to Vesali. The minister stayed in the garden, but Bimbisara entered the mansion of Amrapali. Suddenly he heard a bell pealing. This was a warning to the citizens that an enemy was present in their midst. When she was questioned about this commotion, Amrapali informed him that they were bound to search her home and look for him. He said he wanted to leave but she asked him to stay on, for according to the agreement between her and the *Gana* they could search her house only after a week. The Lichchhavis, however, learnt of his presence and decided to leave the question of settling a score with Bimbisara to the future generation.

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Soon after this Amrapali gave birth to a son. He was Bimbisara's child. He grew up to be a handsome boy, but the Lichchhavi boys with whom he played called him a bastard and the boy wept. His mother, however, informed him that he was the son of Bimbisara. Later on the boy met his father. The boy was named Abhaya and the appellation of prince was employed for him.

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The lot of the *Janapada-kalyanis*, however, was not so enviable. It is mentioned that the beautiful daughter of a Brahman from Champa was appointed a *Janapada-kalyani* and got employment with Bimbisara. The inmates of the harem of Bimbisara, out of sheer jealousy, forced her to do the work of a barber. She had to take care of the beard and the hair of the king.

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A beautiful but tragic story of the courtesan Vasavadatta (of Mathura) is related in the *Divyavadana*. Once her servant went to Upagupta (who owned a perfume shop) in order to buy perfumes for her mistress. When she came home, her mistress told her that she had been cheated by the perfumer and that she should have got more perfume for the money she had paid. The maid praised the beauty and the upright conduct of Upagupta. The courtesan was attracted towards him and sent a message asking him to meet her. There would be love-making and no charge. His reply was that the proper time had not yet come for him to meet her, and there the matter ended.

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In the meanwhile, there came a horse merchant from Uttarapatha to Mathura. And when he heard that Vasavadatta was the chief courtesan of the city, he sent five hundred *Purana* coins to her to enable him enjoy her company. Unable to check her greed, she met her lover and murdered him and threw his body in the lavatory. The relatives of the murdered man found the body. When the king heard of this nefarious crime he ordered the mutilation of her hands, feet and nose, and she was abandoned near the burning grounds. When Upagupta heard about this he came to the conclusion that this was the time for him to meet her. He proceeded to the burning grounds and when he met her, he told her why he had not come earlier, it was not her beauty that attracted him but the ultimate results of passion.

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Salavati (*M.V.* VIII, 1, 3-4), a beautiful girl of Rajagriha was also installed as a courtesan. She received training in dancing, singing and lute-playing and her fees were fixed at a hundred *karshapanas* a night. Once when Salavati was with a child, to safeguard her position she gave out that she was ill. Nobody was allowed to see her. She gave birth to a boy and she asked her maid to abandon him on a dust heap. He was found and reared by Abhaya and later grew up to be the famous physician Jivaka Kumarabhritya.

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Sirima, daughter of Salavati, and a devoted Buddhist, was a beauty who maintained an establishment of five hundred *ganikas* to entertain the friends of her lovers (*Dhammapada Comm.* iii 308-9). It is said that attracted by her beauty, a Buddhist monk went to dine at her house. She was ill and was brought to the dining hall to pay her respects to the monk. The same day she died. Vimala, another courtesan, born in a public brothel of Rajagriha, was a capricious woman choosing rich or poor lovers at her will. She tried to make love to Mahamoggalana but was repulsed. Later on she joined the Buddhist church.

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Banaras was famous for its courtesans and trollops A courtesan whose father was a distinguished citizen of Banaras, brought up his daughter very well and taught her all the arts She charged a prohibitive fee calculated at half the day's revenue of Banaras. But the clients who came to her were so few in number that she was forced to reduce her fees to half. Therefore she came to be known as a Ardha Kasi (half Kasi). She was later attracted to the Buddhist church.

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In Buddhist literature courtesans are very closely associated with dancing, singing, drinking and other forms of amusements. As is shown by the epics and the *Jatakas*, wherever people gathered for pleasure, courtesans and trollops followed. The *Brahmajala Sutra* gives the following list of shows which the *bhikkhus* were not allowed to attend since these were bound to divert their attention: dancing (*naccham*), singing (*gitam*), instrumental music (*vaditam*), dramatic shows at the fairs (*pekkham*), ballad recitations (*akkhanam*), hand music or playing of cymbals (*panisaram*), chanting of poetry (*vetalam*), playing on earthen pots as a drum (*kumbhathunam*), fairy scenes (*sobhanagarakam*), acrobatic feats by the Chandalas (*chandala-vamsadhopanam*), combat of elephants, buffaloes, bulls, goats, rams, cocks and quails, bouts at quarter staff (*danda- *yuddham*), boxing and wrestling, sham fights (*uyyodhikam*), roll calls (*balaggam*), manoeuvres (*sena-byuham*) and reviews (*anikadasanam*).

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In the terms mentioned above, *pekkham* is equated by Buddhaghosa with *natasamajjo*. The *Sigalovada Sutta*, p. 300, says that the six dangers accompanying the *samajjas* are dancing, singing, music, recitation, conjuring tricks and acrobatic shows. We further learn from the *Vinaya*, ii. 107; iv. 267 that in the *samajja* not only amusements but also food was provided. Special seats were reserved for high officials and the *samajja* was held on the top of a hill. The last detail probably suggests that the festival was held at the time of *girimaha* or the worship of the mountains.

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As a matter of fact, *samajja* in Buddhist literature connotes not just a particular type of show, but a show in general, consisting of dancing and music, acrobatic performances, bird and animal fights, wrestling etc. and occasionally, eats were distributed. The *Jatakas*, as a matter of fact, give a fairly clear picture of the *samajja*. Parents sent messages to their sons studying in the university towns of Banaras and Takshasila to come home to attend such gatherings which were generally held in the palace court, and the king himself issued a proclamation by the beat of drums inviting people to come and attend the performance. A pavilion (*mandapam*) was set up and a throne (*pallanka*) was set apart for the king. Slaves, women of the harem, courtiers, Brahmans and citizens sat around him. In the courtyard the seats were arranged in circles (*chakkatichakke*) and the benches in rising tiers (*manchati-manche*). Wrestling, archery, ram and elephant fights, and acrobatic feats (*natakam*) formed a part of such gatherings.

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As regards the *natakam*, it is mentioned that five hundred acrobats organized a half-yearly *samajja* in the presence of the king of Rajagriha. The show lasted a week. The main feat shown was a damsel walking, dancing and singing on a horizontal bar.

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In the *Guttila Jataka*, *samajja* takes the form of a musical competition between two masters before a huge gathering in the palace courtyard. Master Guttila of Banaras, who was an expert in his art was renowned all over India. At that time certain merchants from Banaras had been to Ujjain on a business trip. When a holiday was proclaimed in Ujjain they all clubbed together, procured scents, perfumes and ointments and all kinds of food and meats. After they had their fill, Musila, the chief musician of Ujjain was brought in, but his lute-playing failed to impress the assembly as it could not compete with the lute-playing of Guttila. When Musila heard Guttila being praised, he asked the merchants to take him to Banaras. There he managed to learn all the intricacies of music from Guttila. Musila wanted to serve the king of Banaras with the help of his teacher, but he was offered only half the salary of his teacher unless he could defeat his teacher in a musical competition. The *samajja* was held, and with the miraculous help of Sakka, Guttila scored a victory over his rival.

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The life depicted in the *Jatakas* is one of a healthy people singularly free from moral inhibitions. The gaiety of *samajjas* was increased by pleasure trips to gardens provided with ponds, trees and flowering plants where men and women enjoyed themselves to their heart's content. Music, dancing, drinking and watersports (in which courtesans participated freely) were an important part of such convivial gatherings.

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Frequent holidays also gave an opportunity to the people to enjoy life without restraint. The musicians naturally played an important part in such festivals. Even the poor folk donned new garments. Men went to the fairs accompanied by their wives. They brought flowers, perfumes and drinks. The Kartika festival was held on the full moon day of the Kartika month when the king went round the city in a procession. On these occasions and specially during the drinking festivals (*suranakkhattam surachhano*) people enjoyed their drinks and ate good food. Besides the taverns (*surapana*) special drinking booths (*mandapam*) were erected. In all these revelries the courtesans and prostitutes played an important part.

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*Goshthi* (or a gathering held to promote the arts, literature and music and one in which courtesans participated freely) was a recognized institution in ancient India, though not as popular in Buddhist India as it was later on. There is not much information about goshthis in Pali literature, but there are some interesting references to it in Buddhist-Sanskrit literature. Artists frequently united to form *goshthis*. The *Avadanashataka* mentions that in Shravasti five hundred *gandharvikas* lived in a *goshthi*. There is an incident about a famous musician called Supriya, who could play with great mastery the seven notes and twenty-one *murchhanas* on his single-stringed lute (*ekatantri vina*). In six cities he proclaimed his mastery of music with the beat of the drum and nobody could rival him. He reached Shravasti where he challenged the *goshthi* of musicians and approached the ruler Prasenajit for this purpose. The clever ruler took him straight to the Buddha who was staying at Jetavana, and Supriya played an intricate piece on his *vina*, but was humbled by the Buddha who played more sweetly on an invisible *vina*.

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The *goshthikas'* love of fine garments, music and their revelry is emphasized in another place in the *Avadanasataka*. It is said that a crowd of revellers (*goshthikas*) who were intoxicated kept on singing and dancing to the accompaniment of musical instruments. While they were going out of Shravasti they met the Buddha. Their association with prostitutes is not mentioned here, but according to the *Mahavastu* iii. 35-38 a banker's son (who was probably a *goshthika*) used to live in the company of prostitutes.

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