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Hindu Administrative Institutions c11.s5: Sec. v. The Fourfold Army

Hindu Administrative Institutions c11.s5

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Sec. v. The Fourfold Army

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It has been already said that the ancient Indians divided themselves into four classes which formed the basis of their social organization. The very object of this division is claimed to be a division of labour, each caste or group functioning in its particular sphere so that society could progress on healthy and harmonious lines of development.³ The chief duties of the Kṣatriya are protection and punishment.⁴ Protection was to be effected by means of weapons of warfare, fourfold army, gifts, and other *dharmic* methods. It may be asked whether the use of arms was then the monopoly of the warrior class (Kṣatriya). Though to a large extent the army consisted of the members of the Kṣatriya community still other castes were not excluded from it. In the Vedic period the infantry men were largely from the Vaiśya class (patti) but under the Kṣatriya lead.¹ Again the interesting discussion by Kauṭalya on the relative merits and demerits of the army recruited from different castes shows that before the time of the composition of the *Arthaśāstra*, armies were recruited from all the four castes. In the opinion of Kauṭalya the army composed of the Brahmans is to be discarded as it could be won over easily.² This shows the conception of a highly evolved physiological organism. Here the retinal cell could not receive impressions of smell or the olfactory cell those of taste or touch. In other words the organ of sight cannot hear, and the organ of hearing cannot see or taste. Judged in this light the Brahman could not but be an inefficient soldier and the Kṣatriya a bad trader. That an organ is particularly fit for one function is a merit of the highest sociological value. In that way functions and structures of Indian social polity have become specialized, and this is not a demerit. A trained Kṣatriya host is the best. Even that force consisting of Vaiśyas and Sūdras could not be useful except when they are numerically strong and so valuable in outwitting the enemy.¹ On the efficiency of an army Kauṭalya remarks: ‘Hereditary, strong, disciplined, with a contented family, enduring even in tedious marches, invincible, possessing powers of endurance, highly trained in various modes of warfare, skilled in handling different kinds of weapons, ever ready to share the trouble or otherwise of the king, loyal, and composed purely of Kṣatriyas is the best army.’²

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³ *Supra*, p. 40.

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⁴ In commenting on the second line of stanza 20 of *Puṟattiṇaiyiyal* of *Tolkāppiyam*, "ஜைவகை மரபின் அரசப்பக்கமும்" Naccinārkiniyar says, "படைக்கலங்களாலும் சாற்படையாலும் கொடைத்தொழிலாலும் பிறவாற்றானும் அறத்தின் வழாமற் காத்தல் அவர்க்குரிய காப்பாம்,"

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¹ *V.I.*, ii, p. 334.

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² ‘ब्राह्मणक्षत्रियवैश्यशूद्रसैन्यानां तेजः प्राधान्यात् पूर्वं पूर्वं श्रेयस्सनाहयितुम्’ इत्याचार्याः नेतिकौटिल्यः - प्रणिपातेन ब्राह्मणबलं परोऽभिहारयेत् । प्रहरणविद्याविनोतं तु क्षत्रियबलं श्रेयः ; बहुलसारं वा वैश्यशूद्रबलमिति । (*Arthaśāstra*, Bk. ix, Sec. 2.)

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¹ Arthaśāstra, Bk. ix, Sec. 2.

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² पितृपैतामहो नित्यो वश्यस्तुष्टभृतपुत्रदारः प्रवासेष्वविसंवादितः सर्वत्राप्रतिहतो दुःखसहो बहुयुद्धसर्वयुद्धप्रहरणविद्याविशारदः सहवृद्धिक्षयिकताद्वैध्यः क्षत्रप्रायः इति दण्डसम्पत् । (Ibid., Bk. vi, Sec. 1.)

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In this connection we can examine whether the ancient Indian states had a standing army or an army recruited and disbanded at will. The evidence available shows that both methods were in practice. A detailed study of the constitution of the Indian army in early times shows that there were as many as six kinds of troops, the ṣaḍaṅgabala of Hindu political literature.³

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³ मौलभृतक श्रेणिमित्राऽमित्राऽटवीबलम् । (Ibid.) Cf. Kāmandaka, xviii. v. 2 ff.; S.T.R., v. 6. 62.

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These are hereditary (maula), mercenary (bhṛtaka), belonging to guilds (śreṇi), those of an ally (mitra), those of an enemy (amitra), and those of forest-tribes (aṭavi). The first maula refers in all probability to the standing army, for it is said to be dependent on the king for maintenance and also liable to be constantly drilled. In other words it was in the continuous employ of the state. The other troops were recruited whenever necessary and dismissed as soon as the threatened crisis was over. This is further confirmed by the account of Megasthanes who remarks, ‘This class of fighting men when not engaged in active service pass their time in idleness and drinking. They are maintained at the king's expense and hence are always ready when occasion calls to take the field, for they carry nothing of their own with them but their own bodies.¹ To quote Arrian again: ‘They have only military duties to perform. Others make their arms, others supply them with horses, and they have others to attend them in their camp, who take care of their horses, clean their arms, drive their elephants, prepare their chariots and act as their charioteers. As long as they are required to fight the fight, and when peace returns they abandon themselves to enjoyment, the pay which they receive from the state being so liberal that they can with ease maintain themselves and others besides.’ It is thus manifest that the institution of a standing army dates its existence from the beginnings of the Maurya history, if not earlier.

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¹ McCrindle, *Ancient India*, Frag. 36.

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The four-fold division of the army is a classical division accepted by all the extant texts on Hindu polity. It consisted of the cavalry, the infantry, the elephants and the chariots. The Buddhist *Jatakas* refer to this four-fold force.² The *Vessantara Jataka* furnishes details of the constitution of king Sañjaya's army.³

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² *Caturanginiya Senayā*, vol. ii, Nos. 66, 70, 71, etc., vol. iii, Nos. 157, 161; vol. iv, Nos. 80, 307, etc.

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³ Cowell Trans., vol. vi, 298.

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My horses, chariots, elephants, and soldiers go prepare,
And let the people come around, the chaplains all be there,
The sixty-thousand warrior lords around and adorned so fair,
Drest up in blue, or brown, or white, with blood-red crests be there,

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Like as the spirit-haunted hills where trees a-plenty grow,
Are bright and sweet with plants divine, so here the breeze blow
Bring fourteen-thousand elephants, with trappings all of gold,
With drivers holding lance and hook : as many horses be told.
Such horses all of noble breed and very swift to go,
Each ridden by a henchman bold, and holding sword and bow.
Let fourteen thousand chariots be yoked and well arranged,
Their wheels well-wrought of iron bands, and all with gold inlaid,
Let them prepare the banners there; the shields and coats of mail,
And bows withal, those men-of-war that strike and do not fail.'

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We get here a glimpse of the constituents of the army, the accoutrements of soldiers and of war-elephants and war-horses besides the weapons used in actual warfare. The *purohita* of the *Arthaśāstra* literature is present there. The function of the latter is as given in the *Kauṭalīya* to exhort the troops to fight with unabated strength and valour to the end.¹

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¹ *Arthaśāstra*, Bk. x, ch. iii.

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Besides the four-fold division of the army the fragments of Megasthanes throw welcome light on the existence of a separate department for navy and another for transport and commissariat. Megasthanes remarks: 'There is a third governing body which directs military affairs. This also consists of six divisions, with five members to each. One division is appointed to co-operate with the admiral of the fleet, another with the superintendent of the bullock-trains which are used for transporting engines of war, food for the soldiers, provender for the cattle, and other military requisites. They supply servants who beat the drum and others who carry gongs; grooms also for the horses, and mechanics and their assistants. To the sound of the gong they send foragers to bring in grass and by a system of rewards and punishments ensure the work being done with despatch and safety. The third division has charge of the foot-soldiers, the fourth of the horses, the fifth of the war-chariots and the sixth of the elephants. There are royal stables for the horses and elephants and also a royal magazine for the arms, because the soldiers have to return their arms to the magazine, and his horse and elephant to the stables. They use the elephants without bridles. The chariots are drawn on the march by oxen, and the horses are led along by a halter that their legs may not be galled and inflamed nor their spirits damped by drawing chariots. In addition to the charioteer there are two fighting men who sit in the chariot beside him. The war-elephant carries four men—three who shoot arrows, and the driver.' ¹

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¹ Frag. 34.

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From this it would appear that the Mauryan Government possessed an efficient fleet and had an elaborate naval department. Kauṭalya seems to have taken this for granted when he mentions a special nāvādhyakṣa. There are some scholars who are of opinion that the Kauṭalyan recommendations do not warrant the existence of a navy for purpose of war. Among the various vessels are mentioned those which are bound for the enemy's country (*amitraviṣayātigāḥ*). Surely vessels of merchandise would not be sent to an enemy's country, and Kauṭalya must have meant only warships from the use of this significant term. It may be that the superintendent of ships had the control both of naval enterprises and merchant ventures. Naval fight is again found in the *Manava-Dharma-Śāstra*.¹ Further the term *naukādhyakṣa* of the Pāla inscriptions shows how tradition is unanimous from the Mauryas to the Pālas. Naval fights are frequently referred to in the numerous Chola inscriptions of South India. Tamil literature contains innumerable references to the naval engagements actually entered into by the ancient Tamil kings.²

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¹ स्यन्दनाश्वैः समे युध्येदन्पे नौद्विपस्तथा । वृक्षगुल्मावृते चापैरसिचर्मयुधैः स्थले ॥ (Manu, vii. 192.)

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² Author's article on 'The Art of War' in the *Annals of Bhāndarkar Institute*, vol. vii, pt. iv, p. 393; see also S.V. Venkatesvara's article on 'Sea Power in South Indian History' in the *Journal of the Mythic Society*, vol. i.

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The unit of the army however was a *patti* which constituted one chariot, one elephant, three horses, and five footmen. Three *pattis* formed a *śenāmukha*, three *śenāmukhas* one *gulma*, three *gulmas* a *gaṇa*, three *gaṇas* one *vāhini*, three *vāhinis* one *pṛtana* three *pṛtanas* a *chamu*, three *chamus* formed one *anīkini*, and ten *anīkinis* formed one *akṣauhiṇi*. Thus an *akṣauhiṇi*³ consisted of 21,870 chariots, 21,870 elephants, 65,610 horsemen, 109,350 foot-soldiers. We are told that in the battle of Kurukṣetra as much as eleven *akṣauhiṇis* on the Kaurava side and seven *akṣauhiṇis* on the Pāṇḍava side fought with one another. That the units of the army corps

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³ *Vide* the *Jātakas*, vol. vi, Nos. 201, 303, for a definition of the term *akṣauhiṇi*.

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स्यन्दनाश्वैः समे युध्येदन्पे नौद्विपस्तथा ।
वृक्षगुल्मावृते चापैरसिचर्मयुधैः स्थले ॥ (Manu, vii. 192.)

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were in no way a fixed number is evident from the *Mahābhārata*. We have here a calculation of numbers altogether different from the above.¹ In regard to this it is enough to say that the terms were used in the same sense though there were considerable alterations in the basis of classification of numbers of different arms composing a unit.

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¹ *Vide Udyoga Parvan*, clv.

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