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Hindu Administrative Institutions c12.s6: Sec. vi. Municipal Administration

Hindu Administrative Institutions c12.s6

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Sec. vi. Municipal Administration

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The administration of towns and cities was conducted on such efficient lines as that of the villages.

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It is interesting to read from the *Kauṭalīya* that the municipal administration was carried on on systematic lines. The choice of the capital and its site were indeed important. Topographical and geographical factors were taken into consideration for fixing the site. According to Sukra it must be a place to which communication with the sea was an important factor. The houses were well built and it would appear that cities were garden-cities in ancient India. The gardens were situated on one side of the houses. There is testimony again in the *Arthaśāstra* to the knowledge of the science of horticulture.¹ Through the towns and around them ran roads well-paved and strong in all quarters. Royal roads were interspersed throughout, with innumerable foot-paths.² Kauṭalya recommends the planting of medicinal herbs and fruit trees along these roads.³ Besides grand trunk roads led to the north as far as the Himalayas and to the west and to the south.⁴

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¹ Śukra, i. 212. 15; iv. 4. 52-56.

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² Ibid., i. 259-63; Yājñavalkya, i. 134.

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³ Aśoka, Rock Ins., No. 2.

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⁴ Arthaśāstra Bk. vii, Sec. 12.

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Kauṭalya mentions six principal roads in a city—roads for chariots, for small vehicles, for cattle, for other animals, for trade routes, for pastures, and in country parts for leading to military stations, and for cremation grounds. Several small roads and foot-paths are also mentioned. Damaging of these ways or blocking them in any manner would be dealt with promptly and the punishment was fines which varied according to the importance relatively of the roads.⁵ That the repairing of such damaged places was prompt and attended to immediately is obvious from the edicts of Aśoka. Along these various routes were formed, at some distances apart, rest-houses and market places interspersed by parks.¹ In these rest-houses were given water and food, provisions for strangers travelling along that road.² It has also been shown that mile-stones were a distinguishing feature though Otto Stein doubts their use as gathered from the *Kauṭalīya*.³ Again at the crossing of roads were instituted lamps which were lighted every evening and which indicated a safe path for travellers.⁴ Another interesting regulation was to afford protection to passengers from being troubled by thieves and robbers assuring them of the safety of their lives and property in every direction to the distance of one *yojana*.⁵ This report old as it is belonging to the older age of the *Dharmasūtras* shows beyond doubt the utmost care taken by the state represented by the townsmen or the village community for the safety of life and property of the individual citizen.

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⁵ Ibid., Bk. iii, Sec. 10.

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¹ Śukra, i. 257-9 and Kāmandaka. xiv. 28-41 ; Jātaka, vol. i, p. 199 ; Harsacharita, p. 176.

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² Edicts of Asoka II.

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³ Megasthenes und Kautilya, pp. 18 ff.

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⁴ See N. N. Law, Theories in Ancient Indian Polity, p. 93.

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⁵ Āpastamba, ii. 10. 26.

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The public health department of the Municipal administration is not without interest also. The *Dharmasūtras* and the *Dharma Śāstras* agree in the main as to the various regulations for maintaining public health in towns. Āpastamba has rules relating to health and hygiene.⁶ Gautama rules that the use and sale of bad milk and bad flesh must be punished severely.⁷ The committing of nuisance in public roads and in sacred spots such as rivers, temples, shady places, before fire, women and Brahmana was punished.⁸ One should not spoil the waters by saliva, blood, or other kind of impurities.¹ (The conception of pure and good water as the first essential for all good health has been realized from remote times.² There were hospitals for both man and beast. Medical aid was given on an adequate and large scale. Various measures were taken to prevent the spreading of diseases throughout the land. Adulterated articles of food as also adulterated medicines if administered were severely dealt with.³ State hospitals for adults and children are mentioned in the *Mānava Dharma Śāstra*.⁴ Other preventive measures by observance of special religious rites were not uncommon. Mention is made of four classes of medical experts, including midwives and nurses, army-surgeons, as well as a number of medicinal drugs and herbs and surgical instruments. That ancient Indian medical science was not advanced⁵ in the line of surgery is completely falsified from the numerous references made in the *Arthaśāstra*. Megasthanes mentions to us with what care and attention medical help was afforded even to foreigners when they fell ill. It is said that Alexander consulted Indian physicians when he was in India. There is in addition the evidence of the Buddhist *Jātakas*⁶ which mention distinctly that special lectures were delivered in medicine and surgery in the educational institutions of Benares and Taxila. Kauṭalya recommends punishment to physicians who treated patients with carelessness. Epidemics were at once reported to the state authorities who, it is not impossible to guess, took measures to prevent contagion.⁷ Regulations as to dress and beddings demonstrate in a large measure the utmost care bestowed upon health. These show that side by side with their ideas of philosophy and care of souls the ancient Hindus bestowed great attention also to their physical health.¹

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⁶ i. 11. 30 ; 15. 20 ; i. 2. 31.

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⁷ Ch, xvii.

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⁸ Yājñavalkya, i. 134-36.

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¹ Yājñavalkya, i. 138 ; Śukra, ii. 37-47 ; Vasiṣṭa, ii. 13.

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² Ibid., i. 192.

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³ *Arthaśāstra*, Bk. iv, Sec. i.

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⁴ Manu, viii. 395.

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⁵ *Arthaśāstra*, Bk. x, Sec. iii.

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⁶ *Jātakas*, vol. iii, pp. 32 and 221 ; iv, p. 253 ; *Mahāvagga*, ch. vi, p. 216.

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⁷ *Arthaśāstra*, Bk. iv, Sec. i.

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¹ It is said शरीरं आद्यं खलु धर्मसाधनं । (Cf. Law, *Studies*, pp. 91-3.)

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It has been shown how Municipal administration interested itself in maintaining the safety of life and security of property of its citizens. This could be done only if the people paid in return for such services, taxes or tolls with which alone such things are possible. A number of taxes are mentioned. The tolls and road cess are important.² There were fines as the result of justice meted out in punishing the wicked and the criminals. There was also income from trade and commerce by land and water.

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² Śukra, iv. 2. 129.

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The superintendent of tolls shall cause to erect near the large gate of the city both the toll-house and its flag on the north or south. There was the seal mark on the merchandise.³ There were exemptions of tolls in cases of articles intended for marriage, for presentation, for sacrifices, for temples, for gift of cows, and for other ceremonials.⁴ Tolls from harbours where ships arrive (*khatra*) and license to liquor traffic⁵ also swelled the revenues.

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³ *Arthaśāstra*, Bk. ii, Secs. 21 and 22.

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⁴ *Ibid.*

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⁵ *Ibid.*, Bk. ii, Sec. 25.

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We can now turn our attention to the staff which manned the ship of the Municipal administration. Śukra speaks of six principal officers—the headman or the president, the magistrate or the judge, the collector of land revenue and other products, the officer in charge of tolls and duties, and the sentinel,⁶ and lastly the clerk. Tax-collectors should be like gardeners who pluck only fruits and flowers of the plants thus leaving the productive capacity altogether unimpaired.¹ The mayor of the town must behave towards the citizens like parents towards their sons. His duty was to keep peace and order while the judge punished the wicked and the evil-minded. The qualifications which were expected of a clerk are indeed high. Besides skilled proficiency in maintaining accounts he must be conversant with the several languages of different countries so as to carry on unintermittent correspondence with every state. The duty of the sentinel was to furnish information. He must be of strong physique, regular and active in habits, obedient and faithful and also well versed in the science of weapons.²

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⁶ Śukra, ii. 121-3.

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¹ Śukra, ii. 172ff.

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² Ibid., ii. 170 ff.

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Kauṭalya speaks of a nāgaraka or the superintendent of the city which was protected on all four sides at the entrance by sthānikas or sentinels—armed men who reported to the authorities concerned the movements of enemies or other undesirables. The duties of the nāgaraka were onerous. He examined every day the water-reservoirs, roads, secret passages, fortresses, and other defensive works. He kept in his custody things stolen or lost, to be returned to the owners on their claim. He could set free a child, the old, the diseased and others by taking compensation. Other prisoners were liberated on the king's birthday or full moon days. The jail regulations are also given in sufficient detail.³

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³ Arthaśāstra, Bk. ii, Sec. 36.

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There was a census clerk who noted from time to time the number of houses with their respective inhabitants, their caste, professions and their earning capacities.

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The census was then a permanent institution being a state department of the *Samāharta*. This institution of the census,¹ an element of civilized life, was also a feature in villages. Emigration and immigration of persons² are also mentioned. In the city there were officials in the grade of the village-*gopas*, who supervised ten to forty households. Every official was also a census officer. For administrative purposes every city or town was divided into four divisions with *sthānikas* in respective divisions. There were managers of charitable institutions (*dharmāvasati*) who took charge of mendicants and travellers. Among police regulations are prevention of fires and the curfew regulation prohibiting movements in the city.

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¹ *Arthaśāstra*, Bk. ii, Sec. 35.

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² *Ibid.*, Bk. x, Sec. 2.

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Alien guests must either go to their caste people or live in rest houses. There were watchmen who either openly or in disguise wandered all the streets and other public places such as hotels, shops of wine-vendors, flesh-dealers, gambling dens, and arrested the criminal, and even suspects who were punished if found guilty. There were regulations for building and also for kindling fire. Thatched roofs were avoided as far as possible. Preventive measures were taken to quench fire when it breaks out in any corner of the city or of the village. Those citizens who did not co-operate in such public matters were fined and also punished in other ways.³ There are again rules of practical wisdom;—insurance against famine, flood and fire.⁴ In case of famine the king would supply freely food from his treasury or from sympathetic neighbouring rulers or from the munificence of his rich subjects. Failing these he set on foot emigration. In time of floods people must remove themselves from the banks of rivers.¹

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³ *Ibid.*, Bk. ii. Sec. 36 and Bk. xiv, Sec. 2.

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⁴ Law, *Studies in Ancient Indian Polity*, p. 98.

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¹ *Arthaśāstra*, Bk. viii, Sec. 4.

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The responsibilities of the watchmen were great. They had alone power to punish the evilly bent. If by any reason men of good conduct were arrested by them or if they misbehaved towards slave girls they were punished. If they misbehaved or seduced family women (*kulastri*) the punishment was nothing short of death. These were regulations to maintain the public morals of the city. The citizens of the town or foreigners, when going out of the city or into it, should furnish passes. Failing this, they were punished.² Thus the Municipal administration of ancient India anticipates tendencies which would satisfy even an expert commissioner of a modern city corporation.

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² *Ibid.*, Bk. II, Sec. 36.

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