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War in Ancient India c7.s3: Section VII: The Commissariat

War in Ancient India c7.s3

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Section VII: The Commissariat

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The *caturanga* was a classical division of the army accepted by tradition. But in the epoch of the epics we hear of a *ṣaḍaṅga*¹⁰³ or the six-fold army, including commissariat and admiralty. The use of commissariat can be traced to the epic age. It is said that when the Pāṇḍava army marched to Kurukṣetra it was followed by ‘carts and transport cars, and all descriptions of vehicles, the treasury, weapons, and machines, and physicians and surgeons, along with the few invalids that there were in the army and all those that were weak and powerless.’ This was a purely civil department attached to the army.¹⁰⁴ That a group of physicians

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¹⁰³ This term Ṣaḍaṅga connoted differently in different periods. The *Śukranītisāra* mentions seven elements of the army (IV. 7.1.), the usual fourfold division together with bulls, camels and cannon. The last may be appropriately termed as the artillery. Bulls and camels are mentioned in the description of the army by Kauṭalya; but by

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¹⁰⁴ शक्टापणवेशाश्च यानयुग्यं च सर्वशः । कोशं यन्त्रायुधं चैव ये च वैद्याश्चिकित्सकाः ॥ फाण्डु यच्चबलं किंचियच्चापि कृशदुर्बलम् । तत्सञ्ज्ञययौ राजा ये चापि परिचारकाः ॥ *Mhb. Udyoga*, 151, 58-59.

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themselves they did not constitute two separate divisions as mentioned by Śukra who probably lived in the early centuries of the Christian era. The attempt to show that the Vijayanagara army consisted of the divisions mentioned by Śukra with the exception of chariots on the single evidence of the Bakhar of Rāmarāja cannot be definitely accepted as we are told by Sewell that the troops of Vijayanagara which marched against the Sultan of Gulbarga in A.D. 1419 consisted of horse, foot and elephants. (Saletore, *Social and Political Life*, I, pp. 420-21 and Sewell, *Forgotten Empire*, p. 65). We have to treat this evidence with caution. It seems more likely that bulls and camels continued to be auxiliaries of the cavalry and elephants. This larger use of camels and bulls was necessitated by the lack of supply of good horses. We are told that the foreign policy pursued by Vijayanagara was to get a good supply of horses from Armuz (Sewell, *op. cit.*, pp. 381-2). It may also be noticed that the price of a horse was very heavy (Barbosa, I, p. 211). As for the artillery it is difficult to agree with the view often glibly expressed that it was unknown to the age of the *Arthaśāstra* (Saletore, *op. cit.* p. 420). In the epic and *Arthaśāstra* period artillery included mostly chariots and sometimes infantry who used fire arms against the enemy.

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formed part of the army on the march is again attested by another reference to them in the next chapter. They had with them the necessary medicines and other equipment. In describing the camp of the Pāṇḍavas we are told that skilled and experienced workmen were found in great numbers in the army and that these were given regular salaries. In it were seen all kinds of weapons, besides plenty of water, food and fodder, chaff and fire. Other articles were honey, clarified butter, and pounded lac.¹⁰⁵

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¹⁰⁵ तत्रासन्शिल्पिनः प्राज्ञाः शतशो दत्तवेतनाः । सर्वोपकरणैर्युक्ता वैद्याः शास्त्रविशारदाः ॥ ज्याधनुर्वर्मशस्त्राणां तथैव मधुसर्पिषोः । ससर्ज रसपांसूनां राशयः पर्वतोपमाः ॥ बहूदकं सुयवसं तुषाङ्गारसमन्वितम् । शिबिरे शिबिरे राजा सञ्चकार युधिष्ठिरः ॥ *Ibid.*, 152, 12-14.

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In another chapter of the same parvan,¹⁰⁶ in the course of a description of Duryodhana’s army, we are told that it went forth furnished with all the requirements of a large army. Some of these were materials for repair of chariots, tiger skins to cover the chariots, spare spear-blades and sticks, spare quivers, diverse suites of ropes, oil, molasses and sand, pots of poisonous snakes, inflammable articles, syringes, water, skins of leopards, oil-cloths, clarified butter and other weapons of war.¹⁰⁷

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¹⁰⁶ Ch. 155. Compare the organisation of the Byzantine army of the ninth and tenth centuries A.D. as furnished by Charles Oman in *A History of the Art of War in Middle Ages* (1905), pp. 189 ff.

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¹⁰⁷ St. 3 ff.

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The chief functions of this department were to supply clothes and arms to those who had lost them. Wounded soldiers were sent to the camp to be treated by the physicians and surgeons. The same care was taken of the wounded animals. Thus the healing of man and beast was another function of this department.

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According to Megasthenes,¹⁰⁸ Candragupta's army was controlled by a body consisting of six divisions with five members each. One such division was the Commissariat. This was to co-operate with the superintendent of bullock-trains used for transporting war material, food-supplies for the soldiers, provender for the cattle, and other military requisites. Under the control of this division were servants who beat the drums or carried gongs, grooms for the horses, mechanics and their assistants, and foragers; to this list must be added physicians, astrologers, etc. mentioned in the Arthaśāstra.¹⁰⁹

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¹⁰⁸ Fg. 34.

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¹⁰⁹ चिकित्सकः शस्त्रयन्त्रागदस्नेहवस्त्रहस्ताः स्त्रियश्चान्नपानरक्षियः पुरुषाणा- मुद्धर्षणीयाः पृष्ठतः तिष्ठेयुः ॥ Bk. X. 3.

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The Nitiprakāśikā¹¹⁰ says that the army was generally followed by a select harem, some friendly neighbours, a few suburban inhabitants, financiers, chamberlains, eunuchs, the sick, wounded, maimed and weak; also by the civil officials of the State, by workmen, diggers, carpenters, surveyors, engineers, men acquainted with the field of action, hunters acquainted with forests, and good physicians.

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¹¹⁰ VI. 19, 22, 34 ff.

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The numerous references in our authorities to the Commissariat demonstrate beyond doubt that wars were the Roman world, and the most important events of the reign of Constantine are thus represented as the immediate consequences of his conversion. But the historian, who must be content with the evidence of the times, will not be easily persuaded that the zeal of Constantine was not stimulated by the hope of political advantage, or that the conversion of the empire was not the result of a long and gradual process of change.

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The conversion of Constantine is a subject which has been discussed with great warmth by the historians of the church, and it is not surprising that their opinions should be divided. The panegyrists of the emperor, who were eager to celebrate his piety and his zeal, have represented his conversion as a miraculous event, which was confirmed by the appearance of a cross in the sky, and by the victory which he obtained over his rival Maxentius. The critics, on the other hand, who are less disposed to believe in the supernatural, have sought to explain the conversion of Constantine by the influence of his mother Helena, or by the political necessity of securing the support of the Christians, who were already a powerful and influential body in the empire.

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It is probable that the truth lies between these two extremes, and that the conversion of Constantine was the result of a combination of motives, in which the influence of his mother, the political advantages of the Christian religion, and the genuine conviction of his own mind, all played a part. The character of Constantine was complex and contradictory, and it is not easy to determine the precise nature of his religious beliefs. He was a man of great ambition and of great ability, and he was always ready to adapt his conduct to the circumstances of the time.

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The conversion of Constantine was a turning point in the history of the Roman empire, and it had a profound influence on the development of the Christian church. The emperor, who had once been the persecutor of the Christians, became their protector and their patron, and he used his power to promote the interests of the church and to suppress the pagan religion. The conversion of Constantine was the beginning of a new era in the history of the world, and it is a subject which will continue to be discussed by historians for many years to come.

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Further on in the Veda, this same vessel is described as a *plava*¹¹⁵ which was storm-proof and which presented a pleasing appearance and had wings on its sides. Another reference¹¹⁶ informs us that Tugra dispatched a fleet of four vessels (*Catasro nāvah*) among which was the one referred to above. We may infer from these passages that the Aśvins were a great commercial people having their home in a far-off island, and that their ruler Tugra maintained a fleet in the interests of his State. There are also other references in the *Ṛg Veda* to show that the ancient Indians were acquainted with the art of navigation. For instance, Varuṇa is credited with a knowledge of the ocean routes along which vessels sailed.¹¹⁷

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¹¹⁵ I, 24, 3, 5.

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¹¹⁶ *Ibid.*, 6.

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¹¹⁷ I, 6,2,7. *Cp. Tait Up., Durgā Sūktam* जातवेदसे सुनुवाम।

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The *Baudhāyana Dharmaśāstra* speaks of *Samudra-samyānam* and interprets it as *nāvā dvīpāntarāgamanam*, i.e., sailing to other lands by ships. This very term occurs in the *nāvādhyakṣa* section of the *Kauṭalīya Arthaśāstra*.¹¹⁸

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¹¹⁸ Bk. II. ch. 28.

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The Purāṇas have several references to the use of ships and boats. The *Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa* speaks of vessels tossing about on the sea. The *Varāhapurāṇa* refers to the people who sailed far into the ocean in search of pearls and oysters. The ships floated daily on the shoreless, deep, and fearful waters of the ocean.¹¹⁹ We are on a firm ground when we see in the Andhra period their coins marked with ships. The ship building activities were great on the east coast, and the Coromandel coast in particular. From this period to about 15th century A.D. there was a regular intercourse with the islands of the Archipelago most of which were colonised and also with ancient America right across the Pacific as testified to us by the archaeological finds and inscriptions in those parts. The Pāli books of Ceylon like the Mahāvaṃśa refer to ocean going vessels carrying 700 passengers. Such frequent intercourse and colonisation through the ages could not have been effected without a powerful fleet.

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¹¹⁹ Quoted in the *Yuktikalpataru*, p. 228. चिरप्रवासयात्रायां रणे काले घनात्यये।

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But it is in a later work, the Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja, that we have three classes of ships—the Sarvamandira, the Madhyamandira, and the Agramandira. The first was called Sarvamandira because it had apartments all round. In the Sarvamandira were carried treasures, animals, and ladies of the harem. This was the vessel ordinarily used by kings in times of peace. The Madhyamandira was so called because the living apartments were situated in the middle. It was a sporting vessel and generally used in the rainy season. The vessel of the third kind, the Agramandira, took its name from the circumstance that the living room was located in front or at the top of the vessel. The Agramandira was used for distant and perilous voyages and also sea-fights.¹²⁰ There are also in the Yuktikalpataru other references to vessels. There are 27 types of ships mentioned here, the largest having the measurement 276 ft. × 36 ft. × 27 ft. weighing roughly 2,300 tons. The following passage points to the use of ships in warfare. The line: *naukādyam vipadam jñeyam*¹²¹ makes it clear that naval expeditions were common. Under the heading of *yānam* or march mention is made of expeditions by land, water and air. We shall examine these later on in detail.

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¹²⁰ P. 228; see also R. K. Mookerjee: *Shipping in Ancient India*.

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¹²¹ P. 7.

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From this we may conclude that in ancient India ships were employed in warfare at least as early as the *Rg Vedic* times, though only on a scale which would appear insignificant to-day what with U-boats and submarines. But it is an incontrovertible fact that there was a naval department in Mauryan times. We have the testimony of Megasthenes that the navy was under a special officer called the Superintendent of Navigation. This official was in turn controlled by the Admiralty department. The officer whom Megasthenes refers to as Superintendent of Navigation is called *Nāvādhyakṣa* as already seen, in the *Arthaśāstra*. The Greek accounts bear testimony to the fact that navigation had attained a very high development at the time of Alexander’s invasion, for we are told that the invader was able to secure a fleet from the Punjab at short notice. The *Arthaśāstra* lays down some healthy regulations relating to navigation. Vessels which gave trouble or were bound for the enemy’s country, or transgressed the regulations of port towns were to be destroyed.¹²²

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¹²² हिंसिका निर्घातयेद्, अमित्रविषयातिगाः पण्यपत्तनचारिलोपघातिकाश्च ।

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A considerable ship building activity is evident on the west coast of India also as noted in the *Śangam* works of the Tamils. South India carried on political and commercial activities as far as the Mediterranean in the early centuries of the Christian era and before. The great Ceran Śenguṭṭuvan had a fleet under him.

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Coming to later times we have the account of Huen Tsang who notices a fleet of 30,000 sail belonging to the King of Assam. There is inscriptional evidence of the possession of a fleet under the Kākatīyas and the Cholas in South India. Marco Polo testifies to the huge size and efficient construction of Indian vessels while Yule in his *Cathey* refers to Rajput ships *en route* to China. Friar Odoric saw one with 700 passengers. Varthema (1503 A.D.) saw vessels of 1,000 tons burden built at Masulipatam. According to Dr. Vincent, India built great sized vessels from the time of Agathareids (171 B.C.) to the 16th century. And no wonder the Portuguese when they first landed at the west coast were carried away by the excellent India vessels. Later still, the Vijayanagara Empire, which had as many as 300 ports,¹²³ had a powerful fleet. The naval commander was styled *Naviyādaprabhu*.¹²⁴ More of this in the section on naval warfare.

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¹²³ Elliot and Dawson, IV. p. 103.

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¹²⁴ *Ep. Car.* VIII, Sb. 468.

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