Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c14.t1: (1) The Samaṇa Nigganthas

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c14.t1

Language: English

(1) The Samaṇa Nigganthas

Persons desiring to renounce the world and embrace the life of a monk or a nun were allowed to be admitted in the Jain congregation without any distinction of rank or caste Not only the world-sick ordinary people renounced the world but also warriors and bankers, who were members of the upper class and who were endowed with personal grace, learning, valour and splendour. They left their riches, corn, and the family, and considering sensual pleasures worthless and life transitory as the water bubbles and dew drops, exchanged the glitter and pomp of worldly life for the homeless condition of the ascetics.⁶

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⁶ Ovā, 14, p 49

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People dissatisfied with the condition of society around them such as the political conflicts, resulting in tyranny and lawlessness, domination of one class over another, the ruthlessness of criminal laws, the system of usury etc, and disappointed in their cherished expectations, fled away from deceptive pleasures and wickedness of the world and sought quietude and peace of mind in solitude in a wood The question is asked :—

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By what acts can I escape a sorrowful lot in this unstable internal samsāra, which is full of misery?

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The answer is :—

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Severing your former connections, place your affection on nothing; a monk who loves not even those who love him, will be freed from sin and hatred.⁷

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⁷ Uttarā 8. 1, 2. trans. by Jacobi, p. 31

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This is the keynote of the whole pessimistic philosophy.

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Causes of Renunciation

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Various causes are assigned to renunciation. The Thāṇāṅga mentions the following ten kinds of renunciation (pavvajjā) :

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(1) Voluntary renunciation of the world, (2) renunciation due to sudden anger, (3) renunciation due to poverty, (4) renunciation on seeing a dream, (5) renunciation in fulfilment of a vow (padisuga), (6) renunciation because of recollecting previous birth, (7) renunciation due to sickness, (8) renunciation due to insult, (9) renunciation by being enlightened by gods and (10) renunciation out of affection for a son who had already taken to order.⁸ We come across instances when sentimental people escaped from the worldly state at the slightest provocation. We are told that the queen of Devilāsatta of Ujjenī saw a grey hair on her husband's head, which she took out coiling round her finger. The king said that an envoy of old age had come, and keeping it in a golden plate, covering it with a pair of silken garment, took it around the city. The king anointed his son on the throne and pronouncing “our forefathers renounced before their hair turned grey”, retired from the world along with his queen.⁹

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⁸ 10. 712.

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⁹ Ava cū II, p 202 f, cf “Dharmadūta” in the Sthavirāvalīcarita, I 94 f, also Cullasutasena Jātaka (No 525), V, p 177 , Nimi Jātaka (541) VI, p 95

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Even at times very trifling causes and incidents stirred deep religious feelings. Bharata, for instance, saw his finger devoid of the ring and it looked ugly and this cause was sufficient enough to make him renounce the world¹⁰ King Dummuha beheld the banner of Indra fall down and adopted the ascetic life.¹¹ Aritthanemi saw the animals kept in enclosures for slaughtering purposes and it induced in him a sense of the transitoriness of things.¹²

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¹⁰ Uttarā Ṭī 18, p 232a

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¹¹ Ibid 9, p 136

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¹² See Supra, p 126 f

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Although we have seen that the membership of the Jain ascetic order was open to all, there were exceptions to the general rule and the following persons were excluded from entering the monastic order — Children,¹³ old man,¹⁴ eunuchs, dull (*jada*), timid (*kīva*) and sick persons, robbers, king’s enemies, lunatics (*unmatta*), blind, slaves, wicked and stupid persons (*mūdha*), debtors, deformed persons (*jātyanga-hīna*), attendants (*obaddhaā*), servants, forcibly converted (*sehanipphedia*), pregnant women, and young girls (*bālavaccha*).¹⁵

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¹³ The exceptions are Aimuttakumāra, managa and Vaira It is stated that a child may be ordained under the following circumstances (1) If the whole family wants to join the ascetic order, (2) if the whole family of the monk has expired and only a child has been left, (3) an orphan child of a sammaditthi (one who has right vision), (4) an orphan child of a sejjātara (one who gives shelter to the monk), (5) a child of a nun, who might have been raped and (6) if there is possibility of any good being done to the kula, gana or the sangha through minister or other state servants (Nisi cū 11, p 717 ff) Six years is stated to be the minimum period for pavvajā, otherwise in ordinary course no one can be ordained before eight years (Bhag Ṭī 5 3)

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¹⁴ The exceptions are Somila Brāhmana, the father of Mahāvīra in his previous birth, Usabhadatta, the father of Jambu, and Somadeva, the father of Ajja Rakkahia, (Nisi cū 11, p 718)

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¹⁵ Thā 3 202

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The Renunciation Ceremonies

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The renunciation ceremony (*nikkhamanasaṅkāra*) was held with great pomp and show in ancient India Great enthusiasm was displayed on such occasions and even kings took active part in the ceremony and encouraged people to embrace asceticism. We hear of an announcement made by Kanha Vāsudeva that if any king, heir-apparent, queen, prince, chief (*īsara*), knight (*talavara*), head of a family (*koḍumbiya*), headman of a village (*mādambiya*), rich men (*ibbha*), foremen of guilds (*seṭṭhi*), commander-in-chief and the leader of caravan would join the monastic order, he would look after his family and relations who might be left behind¹⁶ *Pavvajā* or “leaving the world, adopting the ascetic life” was conferred near a lotus-pond or a caitya shrine with a sikhara. An auspicious day under a favourable planet was selected except caturthī and aṣṭamī which were avoided¹⁷. An essential condition for the admission into the monastic order was securing the permission of the parents or the guardians. Frequently we hear of gifts of a male or a female disciple (sissabhikkham, sissinībhikkham) offered to the teather by the guardian of a person who wished to join the order¹⁸.

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¹⁶ Nāyā 5, p. 71,

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¹⁷ Brh Bhā Pi, 413.

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¹⁸ See Nāyā 1, 33, Anta. 5, 28

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The Nāyādhammakahā gives a description of the renouncement of prince Meghakumāra. After listening to the preachings of Mahāvīra, Meghakumāra returned home and requested his parents to allow him to enter the order of the Teacher. When the mother of Meghakumāra heard this, she was overcome by grief and became unconscious. Meghakumāra’s parents tried to dissuade him by various ways but he showed his stern determination towards renunciation. Then a sweeping duster (rayoharana) and a bowl (padiggaha) were bought from the shop (kutṭiyā-vana) and a barber (kāsāvaya) was called for hair-cutting. Then Meghakumāra was given a bath, his body was anointed with gosīsa sandal and was beautifully dressed and ornamented. He sat in the palanquin with his mother on the right and his foster-mother with a sweeping duster and a bowl on the left. Meghakumāra arrived at the Gunasīlaya shrine where he was presented to Mahāvīra to be initiated as his disciple. Then the prince with his own hands plucked out his hair in five handfuls and approached Mahāvīra and walking round him thrice praised and worshipped him. Mahāvīra admitted the prince into the order and preached him the law showing him how he should walk, stand, sit, lie, feed, speak, show forbearance towards living beings and pursue the path without negligence¹⁹.

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¹⁹ pp 24-34

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A beautiful dialogue between Nemi and the Sakka is recorded in the Uttarādhyayana. When the former giving up his kingdom and renouncing all his pomp and show, retired from the world, the Sakka approached him and tried to dissuade him from his determination, but Nemi remained steadfast in his purpose.²⁰

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²⁰ 9. 20-22 trans Jacobi, p. 37 f.

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The Samaṇa Sangha

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The religious corporation of the Jain monks was an important and unique organisation in ancient India. In fact, the Jains have remained as an organised community all through the history of India even before the rise of Buddhism down to the present day. The Jain sangha as it has been pointed out included the monks (samana), the nuns (samaṇī), the laymen (sāvaya) and the laywomen (sāviyā). Jain texts furnish us evidence about the existence of collective bodies of ascetics, who lived together under the leadership of one teacher in an *uvassaya* or a *vasati*, and who followed a code of rules and regulations laid down for them. We have seen that Pārśva and Mahāvīra had a large number of followers Likewise Vairasāmi had a *gana* of five hundred monks under his supervision.²¹

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²¹ *Āva cū* p 394

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The rule of a Samana *Niggantha* is stated to have been most difficult (*paramaduccara*) to practise. He had to keep a watchful eye over his observances The path is compared to treading on the edge of a sword.²² There were two classes of Jain monks : (1) those who wandered about naked and used the hollow of their palms for an alms-bowl, (2) and those who put on clothes and kept an alms-bowl, sweeping-duster, a piece of cloth called *mukhavastrikā* and other necessary articles. They came out daily begging their food, and plucked their hair unlike the Buddhist monks²³ They were called *Nigganthas* because they were unfettered It is said that a monk had to guard himself against (1) destroying life, (2) telling a lie, (3) stealing, (4) sexual intercourse, (5) possessions, (6) taking meals at night, (7) injuring "earth-bodied" living beings, (8) "water-bodied" living beings, (9) "fire-bodied" living beings (10) "air-bodied" living beings, (11) "vegetable-bodied" living beings, (12) immobile beings (*tasa*), (13) prohibited things, (14) taking meals in a householder's utensil, (15) using sofa (*paliyanka*), (16) seat (*nisajjā*), (17) taking bath, and (18) decoration²⁴

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²² *Nāyā* 1, p 28

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²³ According to Prof Rhys Davids the *Bhukku* order of homeless persons evolved originally from the *Brahmacārins* who did not enter upon the stage of the householder and who customarily begged their food (*Dialogues of the Buddha*, I, pp 215 ff).

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²⁴ *Das. sū* 6 8

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The *Nigganthas* were not allowed to eat or drink anything specially prepared for them, purchased for them, set aside for them or cooked for them ; neither they were allowed to eat food meant for famine-stricken persons; food for foresters, food stored for rainy season, food meant for the sick persons, or roots, bulbous roots, fruits, seeds and green vegetables²⁵ Thus the conduct of a Jain monk, down to the minutest detail, was regulated by specific ordinances and even the slightest violation of which was sure to bring down upon him the appropriate punishment It is a difficult work to narrate these ordinances in detail, but it would suffice to say that these touched even the minutest details regarding their conduct in begging alms, their residence, medical treatment, their duty at the time of distress, lawlessness in the country, pestilence, behaviour towards the king, and the like

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²⁵ *Nāyā* 1, p. 28.

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The Hardships Undergone by the Samaṇas

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There were days of endless troubles and difficulties for the Jain Samanas, who had to pass through various calamities to get on with them religious life. Travelling was extremely difficult, organised bands of robbers and dacoits moved freely, there were political disturbances when lawlessness prevailed throughout the country, getting a shelter was no less difficult a problem, rivalry between the Jain Samanas and other heretical monks and the Brāhmaṇas was common, there was famine, flood, pestilence, sickness when the Samanas suffered to a great extent Under such circumstances, however, the Jain Samanas tried hard to maintain the usual course of procedure laid down for them Frequently there came critical moments in their life when they hovered between life and death, and ultimately they contented themselves by laying down their lives quietly uttering a word

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Travelling

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²⁶ See Brh sū. 1 46 and its Bhāsya, pp 856-880 (chapter on adhvaprakaraṇa)

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Travelling was considered an important means of spreading religion It is stated that a sādhu or a religious mendicant should be accomplished in various regional languages and in correct utterance and expounding of the Sūtras in different provincial languages He should learn the regional languages and then convert the people of the land He should also meet the great āryas in his travel for the better understanding of the Sūtras²⁷ The Samanas had to traverse long and dreary distances when travelling was most insecure and painful They had to cross big wild forests, vast deserts and big mountains and rivers taking their lives in their own hands Some lost their way in endless jungles, some were overpowered by snow and thorny bushes, some were devoured by wild beasts, some were done to death by robbers and dacoits, and some lost their lives for want of food and drink

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²⁷ Bṛh Bhā 1.1230 f, 1234

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It is stated that in the course of the journey the sādhus should not transgress the fence laid by the caravan. Sometimes the caravan in deep forest came face to face with lions or robbers and the whole caravan was destroyed by wild beasts and robbers and if a sādhu was separated from the caravan, then he could ask the help of the sylvan deity, who would by means of a tremor show him the way or lead him to a janapada.²⁸ They were tied up²⁹ and there was risk of being put to death and flogged and, therefore, it is said that the boundary of the enemy territory should not be crossed by the sādhus³⁰

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²⁸ Ibid 1.3104-9

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²⁹ Cf. ibid, 3.3901

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³⁰ Ibid, 1 2783, also cf 1 3113

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The journey of boats was also a problem to the Samanas We hear that considering the Samana as an unrenumerative encumbrance for the boat, people took hold of him and threw him into water³¹

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³¹ Ācā Sū II, 3 2 344 Also Āva. Nir 470, cf Avāriya Jātaka (No 376), III, pp. 230 f.

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Robbers

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³² See *Br̥h Sū* I 45 and its *Bhāṣya* pp 848 to 856, chapter on *harivāhadivaprakrta*

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There were organised bands of robbers, already referred to, who attacked the travelling tradesmen and made good their escape. The robbers were not content with this, they also kidnapped men and women. They destroyed shrines and the articles thereof, they massacred the whole *gaccha* including the *ācārya* and carried off the nuns.³³ These robbers entered the residence of the *sādhus* and exacted trouble The *Br̥hatkalpa Bhāṣya* refers to a robber who snatched an excellent blanket *kambala-yana* from an *ācārya* at the point of a dagger ³⁴

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³³ *Nisi. cū* Pi, p 99

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³⁴ 3 3903, 4, also cf *Mahāvagga* VIII 22

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Political Disturbances

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³⁵ See *Br̥h. sū.* I 37 and its *Bhāṣya* pp 778-787 (chapter on *varājya* and *arājaka* prakrtam)

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There was another hardship caused by political disturbances in the country The *Br̥hatkalpa Bhāṣya* divides the kingless state *arājaka* into four groups 1) after the death of the king if there were two heirs-apparent and none of them so far anointed as the king *anuvāya*, 2) when one prince who had already appointed an heir-apparent in his turn took another joint ruler *juvarāja*, 3) when the army of the enemy occupied the country (*verajjaya*), 4) when there was warfare between the two opponents claiming the throne *rājja*.³⁶

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³⁶ I 2763

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Frequently the *Samaṇas* moving about during disturbances were mistaken for spies and were arrested.³⁷ It is for this reason that the *Nigganthas* or *Nigganthinis* are prohibited from wandering about during the time of political disturbances (*kuddhavaya*) in the country.³⁸

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³⁷ Cf. *Uttarā Ṭī* 2, p 25a

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³⁸ *Br̥h sū.* I 37.

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Then it was alright if the king was a devotee of the Jain faith in that case the *Niggantha Samaṇas* were given facilities by the king and the state servants But if the king belonged to a different faith, the lot of the *Samaṇas* was deplorable. Frequently they were banished, their food and drink were stopped and their ritualistic paraphernalia were confiscated and there were occasions when they were put to death ³⁹ It was a custom that at the time of the king's coronation everybody including the eighteen corporations and the *Samaṇas* should visit the king with respectful offerings *argha* ; if the *Nigganthas* (*seyabhikkus*) failed to do so they were dealt with severely ⁴⁰ Under such circumstances the *Nigganthas* had to go in the disguise of Buddhist monks and live on prohibited food, such as roots, flesh, stale food *dosina*, oil-cakes, and the food offered to the crows. In the absence of the ritualistic paraphernalia they picked up rags from the dunghill, took a peacock feather broom (*pehunda*) used hide to cover their body, hid themselves behind the lotus-ponds or the *palāsa* tree during day time and travelled at night.⁴¹

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³⁹ *Br̥h. Bhā.* 1 3221

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⁴⁰ *Nisi. cū* 9, p. 518; also cf *Uttarā Ṭī.* 18, p. 248a

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⁴¹ *Vya Bhā.* 1, p. 122 f, *Brh Bhā* 1 3120-3136.

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Residence

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Shelter was another problem before the *sādhus*. In some countries it was very difficult for the monks to get shelter and under such conditions they had to put up in the shrine or a deserted house (*sunnaghara*) where there was trouble from women, eunuchs, wild beasts, snakes, mosquitoes, ants, dogs, and robbers.⁴² It is ordered that the monks should supervise their residence thrice a day, because it may so happen that the women might leave their new born babe there, or the robbers might leave the stolen property, or a person might murder his enemy and leave him, or a woman might commit suicide near their residence.⁴³ Nuns were more troubled due to want of residence and so often they lost their morals.⁴⁴

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⁴² *Nisi cū* 5, p 397

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⁴³ *Brh Bhā* 3 4747-4749

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⁴⁴ *Brh. sū* 2 11, *Bhā* 3484 ff

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Sickness

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⁴⁵ Vide *ibid*, (1 1900-1972)

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During the period of sickness the *Samanas* had to depend solely on others for treatment. If a monk was seriously ill and the physician was not willing to come to *vasahi*, the *sādhus* had to carry him to the physician's house. The *Samanas* approached him at an auspicious time and talked when he was seated happily. Sometimes the physicians prescribed such medicines and diets for the patients which were difficult to procure for the monks. In case the physician attended the patient in the *uvassaya* the monks had to make arrangements for his bath, food and drink etc. Then the question of paying fees worried the *sādhus*. The greedy physician would not be contented without getting his dues and the poor *sādhu* had to provide for it getting it either from the treasure that one might have kept hidden under the earth before taking to the ascetic life or from the unclaimed treasure-trove found in a palace or a well or by earning by making mechanical swans and such other toys.⁴⁶

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⁴⁶ *Vya Bhā* 5 89 f, p 20, cf the Buddhist monks who were allowed to the use of a loom and shuttles etc. as a handicraft by Buddha (*Cullavagga* V 28 2.).

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Famine

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There were long famines in the country and it was extremely difficult for the *sādhus* to get their lawful alms during this period. We have seen how Ajja Vaira used to get alms by magical practices during famine and thereby maintained other monks. We hear from the *Brhathalpa Bhāsya* how the monks fell a prey to women at such times of distress and lived with them as husband and wife.⁴⁷

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⁴⁷ 4.4955-58,

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Prostitutes

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Then there were prostitutes who entered the residence of the Samanas during night and invited them to enjoy sexual intercourse. Sometimes the monks were forced to tie them and keep them there overnight and set them free in the morning. If the prostitutes made a case with the king, the monks had to appear in the court for self-defence.⁴⁸

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⁴⁸ Ibid, 4.4923-25, also Sūya 4.1.2, also cf Dhammapada A, II, p 201

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Women

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Then we come to women. Throughout the Jain texts the Jain monks are warned not to have any association with women. It is stated that as a pot filled with lac thrown into fire melts quickly and is destroyed, so the monks are lost through association (*samvāsa*) with women.⁴⁹ A woman is compared to a poisoned thorn⁵⁰ and the monks are instructed to avoid a woman even if her hands and feet are cut off and her ears and nose mutilated.⁵¹

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⁴⁹ Sūya. 4.1.27

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⁵⁰ Ibid, 4.1.11

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⁵¹ Das. sū 8.56.

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But it was no easy matter to have a thorough control over one's sex instinct. After all the monks had to come in contact with women-folk. They had to go out begging alms to them and preaching them religion. If a monk was living singly, there were chances of his breaking the law and falling into the snares of women. Sometimes the monks lived together with householders, when the householder's wives, daughters, daughters-in-law, nurses and slave girls approached them and requested them to indulge in sexual intercourse with them so that they might have a strong and illustrious son.⁵² The Sūyagadanga beautifully describes a monk, who, being absorbed by the passion towards a woman, became subject to her. Afterwards the woman scolds him, lifts her foot, and tramples on his head, saying "O monk, if you will not live with me as a woman who has still her hair, I shall tear it out; but do not live separated from me." Then she asks the monk to bring wood to cook vegetable, to paint her feet, to rub her back, to get clothes, food, drink, perfume, collyrium-box, ornaments, powders, oils, pills, lipsalve, umbrella, slippers, comb, ribbon, looking-glass, tooth-brush and various other articles for use. If the woman got pregnant she ordered her husbands like slaves to fulfil her cravings. If a child was born to her, she asked the monk to hold the baby, and getting up in the night they both lulled the baby to sleep like nurses, and, though they are ashamed of themselves, they washed the clothes of the baby like washerfolk.⁵³

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⁵² Ācā II.2.1.294, p 332 f; cf Vinaya (III p 134) where sexual union with a Bhikkhu is recommended as a remedy for sterility or a means to procure a son or the husband's love.

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⁵³ 4.2.

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A number of monks are mentioned who fell into the snares of women. We have already seen how the monk Rahanemi fell in love with Rājimati and courted her Then the monk Sambhūya, who, being touched by the hair of the queen Sunandā lost his self-control and resolved to be born as a cakravartin in the next birth as a reward of his penance.⁵⁴ A similar story is told about the monk Addaya who gave up asceticism and married a merchant's daughter After his wife gave birth to two sons, Addaya asked her permission to resume his wandering career But at this time his wife was spinning When her child asked her mother what she was doing, she replied that as his father wanted to become an ascetic, she was spinning in order to support her family Then the child tied his father with twelve rounds of a cord and listening his child's request Addaya remained in the house for a further period of twelve years 55 Then we read of the monk Āsādhabūi, who, inspite of his teacher's warning, abandoned his ascetic life and married the two daughters of Viśvakmā, an acrobat of Rāyagiha 56

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⁵⁴ Uttarā Ṭī 13, p 186 af

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The Ideal of the Jain Samaṇas

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It is stated in Jain texts that a sādhu should not be negligent in his duties, and it is commendable for him to enter into fire rather than to violate his long-cherished vow 57 But it should be borne in mind that the ideal of sramanahood was not to be followed literally It is laid down that in order to cherish the greater vow one can sacrifice the lesser one, just like a merchant who abandons the lesser quantity of wealth in preference to the greater quantity 58 The Jain Sramanas are strictly warned against violating their religious vows, but at the same time it is stated that the life is not without merit and it must be guarded thoroughly even at the risk of sañjama (sañamaṁ appāṇameva rakkhanto), for, it is said that if a person came out safe from the calamity, he could purify himself by making confessions (pacchitta) and could practise more religious tenets 59 It is stated that one's body must be guarded with care as it were a mountain, as a mountain is the source of water so is the body of religion 60

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On many occasions the Nigganthas or Nigganthunis were oppressed by wicked kings and ministers Under such circumstances, failing to pacify the oppressor by peaceful means, it was the duty of the Samana Sangha to punish the evil-doer properly It is stated that Cānakya uprooted the Nanda family, or the weaver Naladāma the species of ants, so a hostile king must not be spared It is laid down that the holy persons who help the cause of religion in this way, or those who render help to such holy persons in their enterprise, are entitled to achieve liberation within a short period (acirānmokṣagamanam) The saint Viṇhukumāra is cited as an example of a great saviour of Jain religion⁶¹ There are other examples when under extreme circumstances the sādhuṣ were forced to violate their vows. It is stated that in order to save an ācārya from the hands of a robber-leader, a weak-bodied Samana might declare himself as an ācārya and offer his life for the sake of his teacher⁶² We have seen how a monk concealed his disciple in a nunnery when the latter was chased by the royal servants Then, if a Sramana failed to control his sexual urge he could indulge in sexual enjoyment by way of masturbation⁶³ (hatthakamma), associating with a woman or by visiting a public woman by paying fees⁶⁴ Similarly at the time of emergency the Samanas were forced to take medicine at night and to use hide, bone teeth or ivory, nails, hair, goat-dung or cow-urine as medicine⁶⁵ But as it has been pointed out, this was not the usual course of conduct of the Samanas. It should be treated as apavādamārga or exception to the rule when a monk under extreme distress had to set aside the utsaigamārga or a general rule for which he had to undergo a pāyacchitta⁶⁶ It is stated that as magical spells removed the effect of poison, similarly if violence is committed according to law (vidhi) purified by chanting magical formulae, sacrifice (janna) and recitation (japa), it does not lead to baneful result; in this way what is permissible (kappa) becomes impermissible and vice versa.⁶⁷ Thus a Samana could violate the general rules only under exceptional circumstances with the idea of practising greater sañjama, i.e, with the idea of doing greater good, which was the ideal of Sramana-hood.

Linked texts (21)

Sūyagaḍa — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Bihā Kappa — Bhadrabāhu, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Jātaka — Pāli
Mahāvibhaṅga — Pāli
Cullavagga — Pāli
Mahāvagga — Pāli
Dasaveyāliya — Śayyambhava, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Uttarajjhayaṇa — Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Ṭhāṇaṃga — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Āyāraṃga — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Nāyādhammakahāo — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Piṇḍanijjutti — Bhadrabāhu & Bhadrabāhu II, Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit
Bṛhatkalpalaghubhāṣya — Saṅghadāsagaṇi Kṣamāśramaṇa, Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit
Āvassayanijjutti — Bhadrabāhu & Bhadrabāhu II, Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit
Uttarādhyayanaśiṣyahitā — Śāntisūri, Sanskrit
Ohanijjutti — Bhadrabāhu & Bhadrabāhu II, Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit
Aṃtagaḍadasāo — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Pariśiṣṭaparvan — Hemacandra, Sanskrit
Vyavahārabhāṣya (Kusumpragya Shramani, Jain Vishva Bharati, 1996) — Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit
Sūtrakṛtāṅgaṭīkā (Dipratnasagar, Deepratnasagar, Agam Shrut Prakashan, 2000) — Sanskrit