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Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c15: Chapter VII: Manners and Customs

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c15

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English

Contents

Chapter VII: Manners and Customs

Magic and Superstitions

Jain Monks and Magical Practices

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From the earliest ages magic and superstition occupied an important place in the social life in ancient India. Here we come across a number of magical formulas and spells to heal sickness, exorcise demons and overpower enemies, love-charms, formulæ to encompass luck for women, to achieve victory in battles and to find out hidden treasures, etc. Innumerable references to magical practices are preserved in the canonical literature of the Jains.

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The Vijānuvāda Puva was one of the fourteen Purvas of the Jain canon wherein various spells and charms were described¹. According to the Bhagavatī, Gosāla was well-versed in eight divisions of Mahānimitta² and could foretell the profit and loss, happiness and sorrow and life and death of the people. It is stated in the Pamakalpa cūrṇi that the disciples ordained by Ajja Kālaka never stuck to asceticism and so the latter went to the Ājīvikas for the study of Nimitta as already stated. Later on Ajja Kālaka gave a show of his Nimitta in the presence of king Sātavāhana, who was very much pleased with him and wanted to offer him some ornaments which Kālaka refused to accept³. Then Bhadrabāhu was a great Naimittika and was versed in the science of spells (mantravāda), he composed the Upasargaharastotra and sent it to the sangha to avert trouble from a vyantara⁴. Ajja Khauḍa was another Jain saint who is described to be a master of charms.⁵ Thus we notice that the Jain monks practised charms and were versed in exorcism. In time of emergency they got alms by conjuring (vijāpiṇḍa),⁶ employing incantations (mantra-tikkha-joga), and distributing roots and bulbs to cure various diseases⁷ they also employed various medicines for causing impregnation and miscarriage 8 Sometimes when the Jam sādhus were waylaid in a forest, they placated the sylvan deity by means of kāyotsarga 9

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¹ Sama Ṭī 14, p. 24a

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² The eightfold division—(1) bhoma (earthquake), (2) uppāta (any portentous phenomenon boding calamity), (3) suvina (dreams), (4) antalikkha (various colours and forms of the sky resulting from some unnatural phenomenon), (5) anga (movements of limbs), (6) sava (sounding of the birds), (7) lakkhana (fortune-telling from marks of the body) and (8) vañjana (signs of distinction)—Thā, 8 808, cf Uttarā (15-7) which refers to chinna (rending of clothes), sara bhoma, antalikkha, suvina, lakkhana dunda, atthuṇa, angavijjā and saravijjā, Sūya 12 9, Ṭī (Hāṇ) p 660. Also cf Dīgha J p 4 which mentions anga, nimitta, uppādo, supinam, lakkhana and mūvachinna, Law History of Pali literature, I p 82 f, also Manu VI 50

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³ See Supra, p 208, also S B. M, p 260 f

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⁴ Gacchā ur pp 93-96

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⁵ Āsa cū p 542, Nisi cū. (MSS) 10, p 101, also cf Brh Bhā 4 5114f

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⁶ The Piṇḍa, 500 refers to two kṣullakas who by applying collyrium to their eyes made themselves invisible and enjoyed the royal food with king Candragupta

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⁷ Pādalitta sūri is stated to have cured the headache of king Muṭuṇḍa Ān cp 301 also Piṇḍa Ni, 497 f.

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The Ogha mentions the disciples of Mahāvīra who possessed various supernatural powers Some cured the disease simply by touching a patient with their hand At times, the phlegm of another dirt and filth were used as medicines to cure disease By the aid of charms they could assume any form at will (veuvva) could rise through air and their speech became as sweet as milk 10 Sometimes when people suffered from disease or the country was besieged by the enemy or people died of starvation or of enlargement of glume galaguta etc by reciting of a spell the preceptor made a stūpa of sand and by magic spells he won the middle, which caused the purity etc I and he made the subsided 11 During the time of religious discussions and also in achieving victory the monks employed various charms and spells 12 There were books on magic Reference has been made to Joi-pāhuda which was an important work on this subject It is stated that the person versed in this work could generate even animate objects Siddhasena Ācārya is stated to have created magical heroes following the instructions laid down in this work 13 The devices such as making a buffalo unconscious were also mentioned in Jompāhuda 14

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The group of tuṭi, joga and manta is considered as one of the three super human qualities asva 15 The difference between tuṭi and manta is that the former is accomplished by certain magical practices and is presided over by certain female deity such as Prajñāpti etc, while the latter is accomplished just by reciting padharas duha and is presided over by a male deity, such as Hameganī etc 16 Joga is a charm or magical incantation which produces enmity, allurement, eradication of the enemy and cures diseases 17 or it is defined as a magical power of rising through air by anointing one's feet 18 It is stated that the kulapati of Bambhadīva possessed this lore and on aṣṭamī, caturdaśī and other festival days, used to walk on the surface of river 19 Then Ajja Vana was accomplished in this lore and by rising in the sky he went from Purīya to Māhesarī to

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8 See Pinda Nir 497-511 9 Brh. Bhā 1 3108 10 Khārāvaladdhi, Sū 15 p 52, also Āta cū pp 395 f 11 Brh Bhā 4 5106-5113 12 See Uttarā Ti 3, p 72 13 Also cf Nisī cū 1, p 375, Brh Bhā 2 2681 14 Vya Bhā 1 38 also see Sūya Ti, 8, p 165a Pinda Bhā 44, Prabhācakacarita, V, 113-127 Panbasvana Muni is stated to be the author of Jonipāhuda see Ircānta, July Sept. Oct 1939 15 Brh Bhā 1 1235 16 Nisī cū p 748, Brh Bhā 1 1235 ; Nāyā Ti 1, p 7 17 Nisī. cū, p 748, 18 Brh. Bhā. 1 1235, also Dadhuvāhana Jātaka (No. 186), II, p. 103.

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get flowers for the festival of the Pajjosavana.²⁰ Vinhukumāra was another saint who is stated to have made a flight from Gangāmandita mountain to Gayapura.²¹

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²⁰ Āva. cū , p. 396

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²¹ Uttarā Ṭī 18, p 248a.

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The *Brhatkalpa Bhāsya* describes various magical practices such as *Koua*, *Bhūt*, *Pasina*, *Pasināpasina* and *Nimitta*. *Koua*²² constitutes (1) *vinhavana*, i.e., giving auspicious bath at cemetery or cross-roads to procure good luck for women for protecting children²³ : (2) *homa*, i.e., offering oblation to the sacrificial fire for averting evil; (3) *suaṭariraya*, i.e., incantation accompanied with the movements of head (com hands?), (4) *khāradahana*, i.e., throwing salt in fire for the cure of the diseases; (5) *dhūva*, i.e., throwing incense in the fire; (6) *asarisavesaggahana*, i.e., changing apparel, the man taking to the costume of a woman, (7) *aḍayāsana*, i.e., embracing the trees; (8) *utthubhana*, i.e., spitting with the sound *thu thu* for pacification of bad luck and (9) *bandha*, i.e., fastening a talisman. *Bhūtkamma* means besmearing the body with the consecrated ashes as a protective charm.²⁴ Sometimes damp earth was applied or a thread was tied in place of ashes. The monks practised this charm for protecting their residence, body and ritual paraphernalia against thieves etc. *Bhūikamma* is also referred to in the *Āvasyaka curni*²⁵ where it is said that after performing this practice a protective amulet (*rakkhāpoṭṭaliya*)²⁶ was tied to a new born babe. In *Pasina* a question is asked to the deity who descended in a thumb nail, in the leavings left after eating *kamsāra* (a kind of sweet) etc., cloth, mirror, sword, water, wall or an aim. In *Pasināpasina* the question is answered by the deity possessed of charms who appears in dreams; or the *Ghantika* yaksa, the family deity of Dombi, when asked a question, whispers in her ear, and she refers it to others. *Nimitta* was another practice, by which one could have a knowledge of profit and loss regarding present, past and future. *Cūḍāmani* was an important work on *Nimitta*.²⁷ Then there were love-charms which were magically effective and by which women could regain their husband's lost affection.²⁸ The *Nāyādhammakahā* refers to the following contrivances : powder prepared from various ingredients causing stiffness (*cunnajoya*), employment of incantations (*mantajoya*), charms causing leprosy and other diseases (*kammanajoya*), causing beauty (*kammājoya*), captivating heart (*hṛdauddāraṇa*), captivity of body (*kāuddā* and subjugation (*abhiyoga*), fascination (*vaśīkaraṇa*), roots, bulbs skin, creeper cells, kirāta herb²⁹ silāras, pills³⁰ medicine valel and mixture bhesaja³¹

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²² According to the *Vya Bhā*. (1 p 116af), however, *Koua* means wonderful feats performed by a juggler by putting the iron balls in his mouth and taking them out through ear or nose, or taking out fire from his mouth

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²³ The king Siddhattha is described to have performed hundred protective charms (*hou-yasaya*) after taking his bath (*Kalpa* 4 62), cf *Asilakkhana Jātaka* (No 126) I. p 456

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²⁴ Nisi cū 13, p. 850

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²⁵ p 140

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²⁶ *Raksāvaṭi* is described in the *Caraka*, *Śarirasthāna*, VIII, 75, p 155 f

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²⁷ Brh. Bhā. 1 1308-13

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²⁸ The *Sūya Ṭī*. (II, 2 p 336) refers to a mendicant versed in the magical spells He used to carry off the women of Rāyagṛha by his charms Once the king detected him and returned the women to their respective husbands One woman did not want to go back but when the bones of the mendicant rubbed in milk were given to her she returned to her husband,

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²⁹ The *Visi cu* (15 1005) refers to the consecrated flowers given to a woman to fascinate her by a *sārejeska* ascetic

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³⁰ The *Utterā T* (13 p 190a) refers to a pill given by a mendicant to Vandhanu which, keeping in his mouth Vandhanu felt unconscious and the royal servants taking him to be dead left him and went away. The same work (8 p 213a) refers to the maid-servant of king Udayana who was turned beautiful by taking a pill also see Magic in the Sanskrit D ama' by Virgina Saunders *J A O S* Vol 45 2 192)

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³¹ 14 p 152

Acquisition of Spells

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Various practices are described to acquire these spells. Rites were performed on the days of dark caturdaśī and aṣṭamī³² and the charms were acquired with the help of the dead body of an uninjured person, endowed with auspicious marks.³³ The name of Satvaki has been already mentioned, who went to the cemetery for securing the *Malāṇola*-spell. Just he set fire to the pyre with the dead body of an orphan and then covering himself with a moist skin moved about slowly on his left toe till the pyre was kindled. Thus within seven nights Satvaki acquired the spells.³⁴

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³² *Nisi cu*, P1 p 7, *Bih Bhā P* 20

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³³ *Ācā T*, 1 6, T1, p 6a

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³⁴ *Āra cu*, II p 17b

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Then there was magical power of rising in the sky *khecarī vijjā*³⁵ We hear of a thief who went to the burial ground, put up a hanger there with burning charcoal and a pike below. The thief after chanting the spells eight hundred times cut off one string of the hanger and thus cutting off the four strings achieved the *vijjā*³⁶ It is mentioned in the *Utkādhikāra* a commentary that Nattumatta, a *vijjāhara*, in order to attain efficiency in certain *vijjā* went to a bamboo-grove (*vaṃśakuḍaga*) and having fastened his feet up, and inhaling smoke started practising penance.³⁷ Then we are told of a king who wanted to learn spells from a Matanga which he could learn only when he occupied a lower seat.³⁸ It was a belief that the spells lost their efficacy when one uttered falsehood.³⁹

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³⁵ *Āva T* (Hani), p 811 a

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³⁶ 3, p 189 a

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³⁷ *Das cu* p 45, cf *Jāca Jataka* (No 309) III, p 28

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³⁸ *Das cu* p 100, cf *Anla Jataka* (No 474) IV p 202

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³⁹ *Nāyā 1*, p 15 f

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Besides, gods with superhuman powers were also propitiated. We are told that in order to propitiate a god, Abhayakumāra went to his fasting-hall and sat there keeping aside his ornaments, garlands and perfumes observing a three days' fast. In course of time the god was forced to give up his seat in heaven and created artificial rains on the mountain Vebhāra as desired by Abhayakumāra⁴⁰ Another god, propitiated by king Paumanāha, kidnapped queen Dovaī and brought her from Hatthi nāpura to Avarakaṅkā.⁴⁰ Still another god by means of his magical power is stated to have constructed a bridge over the Lavana ocean.⁴¹

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⁴⁰ Ibid 16, p 186

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⁴¹ Ibid 16, p. 190.

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Other Magical spells are arranged here alphabetically:— *Ābhoginī.* By muttering this charm one was able to know the mind of others ⁴² *Addaa vijjā.* By means of this charm a patient was cured after casting his reflection into a mirror ⁴³ *Addhavetālī.* By uttering this charm a stick was put down, it was a counter-spell to the "veyālī" spell.⁴⁴ *Āhavaṇī.* It produced instantaneous disaster.⁴⁵ *Āmayakaraṇī.* It made a person sick.⁴⁶ *Antaddhānī* It made a person disappear.⁴⁷ *Anteurī.* In this charm, by uttering the name of a patient, if one's own body was wiped, the patient was cured.⁴⁸ *Ayamīnī.* It forced a person to come to one.⁴⁹ *Buālī.* It appeared like a cat, and was a counterspell to the "mouse" spell ⁵⁰ *Capetī.* In this spell a patient being slapped was cured ⁵¹ *Dabbha* In this spell a patient being wiped with *darbha* grass was cured.⁵² *Dāmilī.* It was a charm possessed by the Draviḍas ⁵³ *Dubbhagākara.* It made a person miserable.⁵⁴

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⁴² Brh. Bhā. 3.4633

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⁴³ Vya Bhā 5.136-138, p 27

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⁴⁴ Sūya II 2.30

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⁴⁵ Ibid, Āthabhana is also mentioned in the Sutta Nipāta, Tuvattaka Sutta 4 15 52 13

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⁴⁶ Sūya., op cit

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⁴⁷ Ibid

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⁴⁸ Vya. Bhā op cit.

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⁴⁹ Sūya. II. 2 27 trans by Jacobi, S.B E., Vol XLV, p 367.

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⁵⁰ Ava. Nir 137 (Hari ).

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⁵¹ Vya. Bhā. op. cit

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⁵² Ibid

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⁵³ Sūya. op. cit.

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⁵⁴ Ibid,

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*Dūlī* It cured snake-bite of a person even if the same spot of a messenger (*dūta*) carrying the news of snake-bite was rubbed 55

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*Gabbhākāra* It caused pregnancy in a woman 56

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*Gaddabhī* In this spell whosoever heard the braying of a female donkey, vomited blood, was overpowered with fear and lost his senses It is said that this spell was possessed by king Gaddabhilla 57

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*Gandhārī* **

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It was a spell of the Gandharvas 58 It was one of the four important spells 59

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*Gorī* **

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It was one of the four important spells 60

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*Jambhānī* It was a certain magical formulary used for exercising the evil spirits supposed to possess weapons 61

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*Jānāīaī* By means of this spell one could find out the past history of a person 62

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*Kaī* It appeared like a female crow and was a counterspell to the “she owl” spell 63

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*Kalingī* It was a charm possessed by the Kalingas 64

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*Kuhedavijjā* It was a magic trick

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*Lesanī* It made a person cling to something 66

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*Mī* It appeared like a female deer and was a counterspell to the “tigress” spell 67

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*Mohanakāra* It was a magical charm used to bewilder an enemy, 68 it was directed by Jain monks against thieves 69

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55 *Iya* *Bl* *op cit* It is an example of sympathetic magic 56 *Suya* *op cit* 57 *Nisi* *cu* 10, p 371 ff 58 *S* *iya* *op cit*, The *Gandhara* charm is mentioned in the *bo_hara* *Tital* IV 108 119 as a charm for making oneself invisible also *Digha* I p 21, 59 *I a* *c* p 161 *Aita* *Ti* 7 203 *Ase* *Bin* *Bhi* 1 250s 60 *Iid* *do* *Su* *t* *of* *cit* 61 *Suya* *op cit* *d* the *jambhaka* weapons mentioned in the *Utt* *nam* *nta* is most weapons *J* 1 0 5 4 2 102 62 *Uttara* *Ti* 13 p 189 63 *A* *u* *op cit* *Uttara* 71 3 2 64 *Suv* *f* *cit* 65 *I* *the* *o* *Su* *XX* 1 66 *Ane* *f* *cit* 67 *I* *of* *cit* *L* *her* *Ir* *of* *it* 69 *Sin* *p* *cit* 68 *Bih* *Bl* 1 1

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Morī It appeared like a peahen and was a counterspell to the "scorpion" spell⁷⁰ Mūsaga. It appeared like a mouse and was a counterspell to the "cat" spell.⁷¹ Naulī. It appeared like a female mungoose and was a counterspell to the "snake" spell.⁷² Osavanī. It was a charm for putting a person to sleep.⁷³ Ovāī. It appeared like a female hawk and was a counterspell to the "poyai" spell.⁷⁴ Ovayanī. It made a thing fall down⁷⁵ Pāgasāsanī. It was a magic art of conjuring or trickery⁷⁶ which produced illusion. Pakkamanī ** It made a person giddy.⁷⁷ Pannattī. It was one of the four important magic arts. It was an art of foretelling⁷⁸ Poyai It appeared like a female bird (sakunikā) and was a counterspell to the "female hawk" spell⁷⁹ Rohiṇī or Mahārohiṇī. It was one of the four important charms⁸⁰ Sanhai This charm was acquired just by reciting 'padhyasiddha'. After this charm was recited it was surrounded by friends, servants etc. and carried out the commands⁸¹ Sappa It appeared like a snake and was a counterspell to the female mungoose" spell.⁸²

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⁷⁰ Āva Nu. op. cit., Uttarā Ṭī op cit.

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⁷¹ Ibid

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⁷² Ibid

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⁷³ Sūya. op. cit., Āva cū, p. 144 Kalpa. 2.27, also Nāyā. 16, p 186. Āva Pr p 193 Vasu, p. 7

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⁷⁴ Āva Nu. op cit, Uttarā Ṭīkā, op. cit.

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⁷⁵ Sūya op cit, Das cū p 45

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⁷⁶ Sūya op. cit.

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⁷⁷ Ardhamāgadhi Dictionary, Vol. III, p 384, Ratanchandji Sūya op cit

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⁷⁸ Āva cū, p 161; Uttarā Ṭī, 9, p 138, 18, 238a It is mentioned in the Kathākośa as a magical art personified as one of the Vidyādevis (M Williams' Sa-Sk. Dictionary)

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⁷⁹ Āva. Nir. op. cit, Uttarā Ṭī op cit

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⁸⁰ Āva cū op cit, Paṇca Ṭī. op cit.

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⁸¹ Uttarā Ṭī. 13, 189a, 194.

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⁸² Uttarā. Ṭī 3, 72

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*Sīhī.** It appeared like a lioness and was a counterspell to the “female boar” spell ⁸³

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⁸³ *Ibid*

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*Sovāgī* (or *Māyangī*) It was a charm of the *cāṇḍālas* ⁸⁴

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⁸⁴ *Suya-g-ā-s*, I, 102; *Al-Biruni’s India*, I, p 132; Bombay 1437

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*Sovarī.* It was a charm of sorcery (*sambarī*) ⁸⁵

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⁸⁵ *Suya-g-ā-s*, *id*

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*Subhagākara* It made a person happy ⁸⁶

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⁸⁶ *Ibid*

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*Tālaunta* By means of this charm by rubbing the charmed fan a patient was cured. ⁸⁷

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⁸⁷ *Ibid*

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*Tālugghāḍinī* It was a spell used for opening a lock ⁸⁸

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⁸⁸ *Suya-g-ā-s*, *Viyāh*, I, 210; *S. K.*, I, 113; *Ibid*

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*Thambinī.* This spell produced the magical arresting of any feeling or force, as of hunger, thirst, or of the forces of water, fire etc ⁸⁹ The Jain monks employed this magical spell to supress water, fire or air when their residence was in danger, this spell was also directed against thieves ⁹⁰

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⁸⁹ *Suya-g-ā-s*, *id*

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⁹⁰ *Brh Bhā*, I, 2711-3 (80); *Nis. c. bhā*, I, 113; *id*, p 7

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*Ulugī* It appeared like a female owl and was a counterspell to the “female crow” spell ⁹¹

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⁹¹ *Ā-a-Nis*, I, 11; *Ibid*

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*Ucchittho* In this charm if a monk was driven out by a layavan or his food and drink were stopped or he suffered from intense pain or snake-bite another monk applied filth to his lips used his mouth with wine (*moka*) and by chanting the magical formulae relieved the fellow monk of his distress ⁹²

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⁹² *Bih Bh*, 98; *id*

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*Uppayanī* (or *Unnamnī*) It made a thing resume the same position as previously ⁹³

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⁹³ *Suy-g-ā-s*, *Dī*, p 1; *Isibhāsiyāim*, I, 1; pull by incans of which one is able to upward (*Kulas* LXXXVI, 189)

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*Vagghī* It appeared like a tigress and was a counterspell to the ‘female deer’ spell ⁹⁴

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⁹⁴ *Ā-a-Nis* op cit, *L’āc*, I, 1; *id*

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*Vañjana* In this charm, by rubbing charmed food a patient was cured. ⁹⁵

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⁹⁵ *Vj. El* cp at 1; *The* fr. *a P. T.*, *jarat-khe* the name of a female demon supp. the hair of a woman’s pudenda (*M. Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary*)

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Varāhī. It appeared like a female boar and was a counterspell to the “lioness” spell.⁹⁵ Vattha. By uttering this spell or by rubbing a piece of cloth a patient was cured.⁹⁶ The Jain monks employed this charm for curing snake-bite and carbuncle.⁹⁸ Veganai. By means of this spell one is able to rise up swiftly.⁹⁹ Vetālī (or Veyālīni). This was a magic art which brought dead bodies to life.¹⁰⁰ According to the Uttarādhyayana commentary, by this spell a Vijjāhara kidnapped a woman.¹⁰¹ Vicchuya. It appeared like a scorpion and was a counterspell to the “peahen” spell.¹⁰² Visallakarani. It made a person free from a pointed weapon or from pain *salla*¹⁰³

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⁹⁵ *Acc. Nu. op. cit.*; *Uttara. Ti. op. cit.*

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⁹⁶ *Tia. Bh. op. cit.*

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⁹⁸ *Brh Bh.* 3-3907. According to M. Williams *Sanskrit Dictionary* *vatthu* is a wrong reading for *vastu vidyā* which is a science in building.

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⁹⁹ *Uttara. Ti.* 1b, 247. *Vegavati* is a name of a vidyādhari in the *Kathākośa* M. William’s *Sanskrit-English Dictionary*.

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¹⁰⁰ *Sūya op. cit.*

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¹⁰¹ 1b, p. 242a. *Vetālī* is mentioned in Buddhist literature.

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¹⁰² *Uttani. op cit.*

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¹⁰³ *Sūya. op. cit.* Also mentioned in the *Rāmāyaṇa*. II. 25-38.

The Vijjāharas

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The Vijjāharas or “wisdom-holders” were spirits like fairies or sylphs who occupied an important place in the Jain texts.¹⁰⁴ The Vijjāharas were essentially spirits of the air (*khecara*), and were described as travelling in their excellent cars (*caracimāna*) which they could make at their will. They are represented as devotees of Jain religion and frequently we meet them bound for the pilgrimage of the Nandisara dīva or the Atthivava mountain.¹⁰⁵ The Vijjāharas also joined the Jain ascetic order :* they are represented as wicked beings carrying off the maidens during the time of their wedding.¹⁰⁷ The home of the Vijjāharas was chiefly the mountain Veyaddha. Several Vijjāhara rulers are mentioned¹⁰⁸

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¹⁰⁴ These spells are also mentioned in the *Divyāvadāna* (xxxiii, 636 f).

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¹⁰⁵ The Vijjāharas also appears in the *Bharhut Inscriptions* (209). The *Vijjāharas* are said to be a king of sem-human beings possessing the knowledge of magic arts and resident in the Himalaya mountains (Hoernle’s Readings from the Bharhut stūpa). In the *Kusa-jātaka* (No. 391) III, p. 303 f. they are described as a being given to night dalliance and seduction, and accustomed to perform by day penance by standing in a ment in a cremation ground, standing on one leg while saluting the sun cf. *Kusa-Jātaka* (No. 436), III, p. 528. The *Vāyupurāṇa* (LXIX) enumerates three original groups of *Vijjāharas*, which gave rise to several gems of the *Kumāra* clan. *Inscriptions*, p. 89 f; Barua and Sinha, also see *Mārkaṇḍeya*, pp. 401-41.

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¹⁰⁶ *Cūla Ti.* 9, 137a f. 13, p. 136a.

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¹⁰⁷ *Bri.*, 4, p. 135.

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¹⁰⁷ *Ibid*, 9, p 137a, 13 p 189a 18, p 235

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¹⁰⁸ Cf *Uttarā Ṭī* 22 p 227, 13 p 241a 18 p 239, 13 p 193a 9 p 135, 18 p 247 It is stated that Nami and Vinami the sons of Kaccha and Mahakaccha were brought up like his own sons by Usabha But when Usabha renounced the world and distributed the kingdom among his sons, Nami and Vinami were not present Later on when they approached Usabha and asked for their share Dhaiana gave them forty eight thousand vijjas, among which Mahārohıṇī Paṇṇatti, Gorī Vijjumuhi Mahājāla Iṇikkhamani and Bahurūvā were the chief Afterwards in the northern region of Veyaddha Vinami established sixty towns such as Gaganavallaha, etc, and in the southern region Nami established fifty towns such as Rahaneuracakkavāla etc (*Kalpa Ṭī* p 203 Vasu p 161), also *Paumacariya*, III, 144 ff, V 13 ff, *Āva cū* p 161 f)

Relation Between Human Beings and the Vijjāharas

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There were congenial relations between the human beings and the Vijjāharas and there were intermarriages. We are told that king Seṇiya had friendship with a certain Vijjāhara and he gave his sister in marriage to him.¹⁰⁹ Then Bambhadatta,¹¹⁰ Sanakkumāra¹¹¹ and Mahāpauma¹¹² are stated to have married the Vijjāhara girls. We are told that Vijjāhara Naṭṭumatta, unable to bear the prowess of a princess, went to acquire lore for achieving equality with her.¹¹³ Besides we are told that the Vijjāharas attended upon human beings and helped them in time of distress.¹¹⁴ There were also battles between human beings and the Vijjāharas.¹¹⁵

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¹⁰⁹ *Āva cū* II, p 160

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¹¹⁰ *Uttarā Ṭī* 13, p 194

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¹¹¹ *Ibid*, 18, p 237

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¹¹² *Ibid*, 18, p 247

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¹¹³ *Ibid*, 13, p 189a

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¹¹⁴ See *ibid*, 18, p 238a, also cf Vasu p 243

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¹¹⁵ See *Uttarā* 18 p 238a, *ibid* 18, p 247a

Superstitions

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Jain texts give us quite a number of superstitions¹¹⁶ some of which survive even to this day. In the Jain texts we frequently come across the stock-phrase "nhāyam kayabalikammam kayahoyamangalapāyacchittam"¹¹⁷ i.e., having bathed, having made the offering to the house-gods,¹¹⁸ and having performed auspicious and expiatory rites (pāyacchitta). These rites were so common in those early days that they were performed before going to pay a visit to a temple, a saint, king or a great man.¹¹⁹

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¹¹⁶ Cf the *Mahamangala Jataka* (IV No 153) p 75 ff where a variety of omens is preached and it is sad that goodness and kindness are the best omens also *Khuddakapātha*, *Mangala Sutta*, *Ramayana* II 25, III, 69 21 ff

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¹¹⁷ Cf *Naya* 16 p 181 etc, *Kalpa* 4 67

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¹¹⁸ Balikarma is mentioned in the *Rgveda* in the sense of tribute to a king or offering to a god (*Vedic Index* II p 62) *Gautama* V 9-17, also see *Mana era* (ch VIII) *Caraka*, in XI 3 p 1657 *Kathasaritsagara* I ch III, p 21n, *Rama ana* II 71.38

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¹¹⁹ Cf *Naya* 16, 181, 2 51, *Kaya Su* 148, *Kalpa*, 4 67

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Various kinds of superstitions were in vogue in ancient days. The superstition regarding four directions is mentioned¹²⁰ We hear that when a person renounced the world and approached to the Teacher in a litter, he always occupied a seat facing the east.¹²¹ For disposing of the dead bodies, it is stated that first of all the monks should select the south-west direction, then south, then west, then south-east, then north-west, then east, then north and finally the north-east direction should be selected.¹²²

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¹²⁰ See *Brhtsamhita* 85 20 ff and the whole chapter on other superstitions

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¹²¹ Cf *Nāyā* 1, p 31.

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¹²² *Brh. Bhā* 4 5505 f; also cf *Bhag Ārādhana* V 1970 f, cf *Manu* V 92

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Then the ancient people were superstitious regarding planets. It is stated that at the time of taking out a dead body of a monk, a suitable planet must be selected, otherwise the monks would undergo *pāyacchitta*.¹²³ Then superstitions are mentioned regarding travelling; when the monks travelled from one place to another, they took into consideration the *tithi*, *karana* and the *nakkhatta*. The fourth, sixth, eighth, ninth and twelfth days of dark and bright months were considered auspicious.¹²⁴ The sight of the following objects was considered inauspicious : a person wearing dirty clothes, rags or anointed with oil, a dog going from left to right, a hunchback, a dwarf, a woman advanced in pregnancy, an old maiden, a person carrying a load of wood or wearing coloured clothes and a ‘*kuccandhara*’ ascetic.¹²⁵ It is stated that while going to a physician the monks should go in odd numbers either in three or five,¹²⁶ at the time of departure if somebody sneezed or asked question as to where they were going or the monks had a fall or stumbled or their head struck against something, it boded evil.¹²⁷

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¹²³ *Ibid*, 4 5527; also *Bhag Ārā* 1988.

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¹²⁴ *Vya Bhā* 1, 125 ff, p. 40a

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¹²⁵ *Ōgha Bhā* 82 ff p. 74; *Brh Bhā* 1·1545 ff

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¹²⁶ *Bṛh. Bhā* 1.1028.

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¹²⁷ *Ibid*, 1 1921-24.

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The auspicious *tithi*, *karana* and *nakkhatta*¹²⁸ were selected when tradesmen made a sea-voyage. We have already referred to Arhannaga and other merchants of Campā who, after feeding their friends and relations in auspicious time, left for the harbour, and when the *pūsa* (*puṣya*) constellation was in ascendancy, released the ropes of the boat.¹²⁹

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¹²⁸ See also *Brh Samhitā*, chs. 98, 99 and 100.

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¹²⁹ *Supra* p 118

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Among auspicious objects mention is made of twelve kinds of musical instruments being beaten simultaneously (*nanditūra*), full vessel,¹³⁰ the sound of conch-shell and drum, a golden pitcher, umbrella, chowries, conveyance (*vāhana*), carriage (*yāna*), the *samaṇas*, flowers, sweet-balls (*modaka*), curds,¹³¹ fish, bell, and flags.¹³² Although the *sramanas* in general were considered auspicious but it is said that the *rattapadas*, *caragas* and *tāpasas*, including the sick, crippled, those who suffered from sickness, the physicians, those who wore dyed clothes or applied dust to their body boded evil.¹³³ It is stated that the sight of a *cakracara* indicated roaming about at random, that of a *pandwanga* starvation, that of a *tac-cannika* bloodshed and that of a *boliya* death without fail.¹³⁴ Fire in the country of Sindhu and burning of *sung* in Lāta were regarded as good omens.¹³⁵ Among animals and birds, the jackal,¹³⁶ *cāsa*,¹³⁷ peacock *bhāradvāja*, and mungoose were considered auspicious and if they were seen in the south they were considered to bring all wealth.¹³⁸ Then the trees without leaves such as *kaṇṭa* etc., the thorny bushes and trees, the trees shattered due to lightening, those having bitter juice such as *rohiṇī*, *kuṭaja* and *nimba* etc., and the trees burnt of conflagration, were considered as bad omens. Then the bones and the corpse were considered inauspicious and after seeing them a monk was prohibited from studying the scriptures.¹³⁹

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¹³⁰ But the robbers and farmers took an empty jar as auspicious (*Brh Bhā* pi 10)

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¹³¹ Cf *Caraka* (*śarirasthāna*), ch. XII, 70-6,

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¹³² *Bṛh. Bhā*, 1.1549 f,

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¹³³ *Ibid* I 1548, cf I 2291 f

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¹³⁴ *Ogha Bhā* 82 ff p 74, also cf *Brh Bhā* I 2637, I 1431

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¹³⁵ *Āva Ṭī* p 5a

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¹³⁶ Compare however, *La cū* II, p 179, See also ch 89 (*śvāruta*) ch 91 (*vāsavāruta*) and ch 90 (*mṛgaceṣṭita*) in the *Bṛh Saṃhitā*

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¹³⁷ 'There was a belief that by constructing a house at a place where *cāsa* was sitting a king got jewels (*Āva cū* II, 179) There was another belief that eating of a snake imparts the power of understanding the languages of birds and beasts (*Kathāsaritsāgara*, Vol II, ch xx, p 108, f n )

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¹³⁸ *Ogha Bhā* 108 ff

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¹³⁹ *Nisi cū* 19, pp 1171 ff

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Among other superstitions the following may be mentioned the newly born babes were put under the cart for procuring a long life.¹⁴⁰ People put on moist robes while visiting sacred places¹⁴¹ or great persons.¹⁴² We read of the mother of Meghakumāra who at the time of renunciation of her son, collected his hair in a fine cloth, washed them with scented water, put over them the marks of five fingers, moistened with *gosīsa* sandal and tied them in a piece of white cloth. Then she kept them in a jewelled casket which she kept under his pillow with the hope of having a look at them on the occasions of various feasts and festivals.¹⁴³ The priests were employed to perform sacrifice for warding off evil.¹⁴⁴ Then, at the death of a monk various superstitions were observed such as spreading of grass and making images with ashes, brick powder or *nāgakesara* near the dead body.¹⁴⁵ *Chinna* (rending of clothes) was considered another superstition. It is said that when a cloth is smeared with collyrium or lamp-black or dirt, gnawed by rats, burnt by fire, destroyed or eaten at the borders, there arises a good or evil result out of that.¹⁴⁶ Then in a newly constructed house the living of the monks was considered auspicious and the entrance of the doves inauspicious.¹⁴⁷

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¹⁴⁰ *Vivā* 4, p 30

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¹⁴¹ Cf *Rāya Sū* 170

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¹⁴² Cf *Nāyā* 16, p 193, cf *Udāna* 2 17

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¹⁴³ *Nāyā* 1, p 30

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¹⁴⁴ See *Supra*, p 58.

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¹⁴⁵ See *Brh Bhā* 4 5533 ff, *Bhag Bhā* V 1982, 1996 ff

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¹⁴⁶ *Uttarā* by Charpentier, p 336, Varāhamihira treats *vastracchedalakṣaṇam* in ch 70, also cf *Mangala Jātaka* (No 87), I, p 371 ff

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¹⁴⁷ *Vya* 7 48 Also see *Tribes and castes of Punjab and N W Province* Vol. I, pp. 228 ff

Sports and Amusements

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Various sports and amusements were prevalent in ancient India when people enjoyed with their friends and companions. Various terms such as *chaṇa*, *utsava*, *pamoya pavva* or *saṅkhaḍi* are used to denote festivals or festivities in ancient days. A *chaṇa* was celebrated for a limited period and sweetmeats (*pakvānna*) were prepared on the occasion, whereas there was a time limit in *utsava* and even ordinary food was enough for the occasion.¹⁴⁸

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¹⁴⁸ Vātsyāyana classified the occasional festivities into five groups (1) The festivals in connection with the worship of different deities (*samāja*, *yātrā* and *ghaṭā*) sometimes attended with grand processions, (2) *goṣṭhis* or social gatherings of both sexes, (3) *āpānakas* or drinking parties, (4) *udyānayātrās* or garden-parties and (5) various social diversions in which many persons took part (*samasyākriḍā*)—*Kāmasūtra* Sū 26, p 44

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Various toys and playthings are mentioned for small boys and girls Reference is made to cowries (*khullaya*), lac-marbles (*vaṭṭaya*), game of tip-cat (*aḍoliyā*), ball (*tindusa*), doll (*pottulla*) and cloths (*sādollaya*)¹⁴⁹ Then we had bow (*sarapāyaya*), the bullock (*gorahaga*), earthern pot (*ghaḍi-ga*), drum (*ḍiṇḍima*), and the ball of cloth (*celagola*).¹⁵⁰

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¹⁴⁹ *Nāyā* 18, p. 207.

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¹⁵⁰ *Sūya* 2 13 f, for other games and recreation see *Digha* I, p 6, also *Majjhima* I, p 266, *Sumangala Vilāsinī*, Pt. I, pp. 84 f.

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For grown-up people there were public gardens where people clad in nice dress, went hand in hand with their lovers for merry-making They left their homes in the morning and spending the whole day in the open air returned in the evening. Reference has been made to two merchants of Campā who went for a picnic in the company of a courtesan¹⁵¹ There were special parks for the kings.¹⁵² Then people went for picnics to a river (*nadī*), pond (*sara* or *taḍāga*), tree (*rukkha*),¹⁵³ shrine (*ceiya*) and mountain (*giri*).¹⁵⁴

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¹⁵¹ See Supra, p 166, cf *Kāmasūtra*, chakladar, *Social life in ancient India* p. 163

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¹⁵² *Pinda*. Nir. 214-5.

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¹⁵³ The *Jīvā* (3, p, 151a) refers to the festival of planting of trees (*rukkharovana*)

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¹⁵⁴ *Nāyā*. 1, p. 39, *Jīvā* op cit ; *Nisītha cūrṇi* (12, p 808) mentions *aḍamaha*, *sāgaramaha*, *thūbha*, *gāmamahajattā*, *nagaramaha*, *madamaha*, *donamuha*, *paṭṭana*, *āgāra*, *sambāhu*, and *sannivesa*. Mountain worship is mentioned in the *Arthasāstra* (p 237) For river worship and tree worship see Rose, *Tribes and Castes of the Punjab* and *N W Province* Vol I, p 134f.

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Jain texts mention various festivities and pastimes. The feast of *puṇṇamāsinī* was celebrated on the full moon day of the month of *kārttika*.¹⁵⁵ On the day of *kaumudīmahotsava* men and women left their residence after sunset and spent whole night in enjoyment.¹⁵⁶ *Madanatrayodaśī* was another festival which was celebrated in honour of *Kāma*, the Indian cupid.¹⁵⁷ Then *ujjāṇiyā* feast is mentioned which was celebrated in Sindhunandana when the women of the town enjoyed in various ways.¹⁵⁸ The festival in honour of *Nagaradevatā* was celebrated in which the circumambulation of the temple was held ¹⁵⁹ In the festival known as bahumilakkhamaha many non-Aryan people (mleccha) assembled ¹⁶⁰ dāsī-maha was celebrated by the maid-servants, ¹⁶¹ then thānuppāyamaha had no fixed day and it was held at any time whenever the guests were received.¹⁶² Then the feast of ¹⁶³ noodles (ittaga, com sevokikā) is mentioned Then the birthday feast was celebrated with great pomp and ceremony as we have seen already ¹⁶⁴ Cāummāsiyamajjanaya was another ceremony which was held after four months of rainy season We are told that during this ceremony a flower-house was made on the high road which was decorated with beautiful huge garlands and the designs in five coloured rice grains were prepared over the city Then the princess was seated on the throne facing the east and was given a bath with white and yellow pitchers and afterwards was decorated with all kinds of ornaments ¹⁶⁵ Then we had samaccharapadilehana or the annual birthday feast.¹⁶⁶ The Vivāgasuya refers to ten days feast celebrated after the completion of a kūdāgārasālā We are told that during this period the king made his subjects free from taxes ¹⁶⁷

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¹⁵⁵ *Bṛh. Bhā* 2·1451, also mentioned in the *Vaṭṭaka Jātaka* (No 118), I, p 432 f

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¹⁵⁶ *Sāya*. Ṭī 11·75, p 413; also *Digha*. I, p. 47, cf *Kāmasūtra*, chakladar, op cit p 170.

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¹⁵⁷ *Nāyā*. Ṭī 2, p. 80a.

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¹⁵⁸ *Uttarā*. Ṭī. 18, p. 246a,

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¹⁵⁹ Ava Ti (Hari) p 397 a f

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¹⁶⁰ Nisi cu 12, p 810

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¹⁶¹ Uttarc T 8, p 124

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¹⁶² Bth Bha 1 1914

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¹⁶³ Pinda Nir 466 Visi cu 13 p 870 Perhaps it may correspond to the feast of rakṣa-bandhana or saluno held in North India

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¹⁶⁴ See Supra p 150

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¹⁶⁵ Nāya 8, p 103

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¹⁶⁶ Ibid, 8, p 96

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¹⁶⁷ 3 p 27

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Among religious festivals the pajjosana was the most favoured festival of the Jains. This festival was held on punnimā, pañcami, dasamī and other pavva days Later on, we are told that from the time of Ajja Kālaga in place of pañcamī the day of caturthī was declared as the day of pajjosana It is stated that once Kālaga arrived in the city of Paitthana where he was received with great pomp by king Salivāhana Kalaka had declared the fifth day of the bright half of bhāhapada as the day of pajjosana but since this was the day fixed for the festival of Indra, at the request of the king, Kālaka changed the day of pañcamī to caturthī This festival was also known as samanapūyā ¹⁶⁸

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¹⁶⁸ Nisi cu 10, p 632 f

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Sankhaḍi (Sankhaṭi in Pali)¹⁶⁹ or bhojja was another great feast which played an important part in ancient India Sankhaḍi is so called because at this time animals were killed in large numbers ¹⁷⁰ This feast was celebrated either for one day (egadu asam) or for many days (an gadwasam) in the first part of the day (purasankhaḍi) or after sunset (pucchasankhaḍi) Girijanna (giriyajna) is mentioned in Vraja when food was taken at night and the milk was drunk early in the morning anunodavacelā) ¹⁷¹ Girijanna was also celebrated in Lāta during rainy season ¹⁷² In order to enjoy a sankhaḍi, people made a pilgrimage to different places In Selapura sankhaḍis were held every year at the lake Isitalāga for eight days. These feasts were also celebrated in Bharuyakaccha, Pabhāsa, Abbuya, at the eastern bank of the river Sarassai near Ānandapura, Ujjenta, Nāyasanda and Siddhasilā. In these sankhaḍis the monks of other sects such as Śākya, Bhauta and Bhāgavatas assembled; there were regular discussions between them. There in the gardens the drunken voluptuaries dressed in fantastic garments, gesticulated with their hands and sang erotic songs, and there the men and women, drunk and decked in fineries, played. The Jain monks were allowed to attend these feasts only if held at holy places, because only at holy places they could preserve their right faith (samyaktva), otherwise there was possibility of their being insulted, poisoned or even killed at the hands of heretics¹⁷³

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¹⁶⁹ See Majjhima I, p 448

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¹⁷⁰ See Supra p 126 also B h Bh 1 3110

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¹⁷¹ Ibid, 4 4881 Also cf 172 bhn ta, II 53 22, Harivansa, II 17 11 ff

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