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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v1.c6.s24: 37. Bṛhaspati

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v1.c6.s24

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37. Bṛhaspati

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Bṛhaspati as a sūtra writer on politics has been dealt with above (section 26). In this section Bṛhaspati the jurist will be spoken of. The complete smṛti of Bṛhaspati on law has not yet been discovered. It will be, when discovered, a very precious monument of ancient India, exhibiting the high-water mark of Indian acumen in strictly legal principles and definitions. Dr. Führer collected together 84 verses ascribed to Bṛhaspati in the legal treatises of Aparārka and others with German translation and notes (Leipzig, 1879) and Dr. Jolly collected about 711 verses of Bṛhaspati on law and translated them in the Sacred Books of the East (vol. 33).

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Yāj. (I. 4-5) enumerates Bṛhaspati among the writers on dharma, but he is probably referring to Bṛhaspati's work on politics. The com. on the Nītivākyāmṛta (p. 7) quotes the first verse of Bṛhaspati's Nītiśāstra.

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We saw above how Bṛhaspati closely follows the extant Manusmṛti, how he pointedly refers to the text of Manu (notes 282-286) and therefore might by analogy be styled a vārtikakāra of Manu. In many places Bṛhaspati explains and illustrates the laconic treatment of Manu. Manu (8. 153) speaks of four varities of interest (Cakra, Kāla, Kārita, and Kāyika), but does not explain these terms. Bṛhaspati explains them clearly.³⁷³ Manu (8. 49) enumerates five modes of recovering a debt (dharma, vyavahāra, chala, ācarita, bala) but leaves them unexplained; Bṛhaspati devotes several verses to the explanation of these terms (vide Kullūka on Manu 8. 49). Bṛhaspati gives elaborate rules regarding partnership. Bṛhaspati enumerates nine ordeals (of fire, water, poison, balance, kośa, taptamāṣa, taṇḍulas, dharmādharma, phāla); while Manu barely alludes to two. Manu devotes only three verses to saṁvidvyatikrama (8. 219-221), but Bṛhaspati must have devoted at least a score of verses to this topic, as Aparārka alone quotes 17 verses of Bṛhaspati on this title.

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³⁷³ Vide कुल्लूक on मनु 8. 153; तासां स्वरूपमाह बृहस्पतिः । कायिका कायसंयुक्ता मासग्राहा च कालिका । वृद्धेर्वृद्धिश्चक्रवृद्धिः कारिता ऋणिना कृता ॥

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The order in which the topics of law appeared in Bṛhaspati can be settled with tolerable certainty from the quotations in Aparārka, Vivādaratnākara, Vīramitrodaya and others works. It was as follows:—the four stages of a law-suit, proof (kriyā, human of three sorts and divine ), witnesses ( of 12 kinds ), documents (ten kinds), bhukti ( possession ), ordeals ( nine ), 18 titles, ṛṇādāna, nikṣepa, asvāmivikraya, saṁbhūya-samutthāna, dattāpradānika, abhyupetyāśuśrūṣā, vetanasya-anapākarma, svāmipālavivāda, saṁvid-vyatikrama, vikriyāsaṁpradāna, sīmāvivāda, pāruṣya ( of two kinds ), sāhasa ( of three kinds ), strīsaṁgrahaṇa, strīpuṁdharma, vibhāga, dyūta, samāhvaya, prakīrṇaka ( otherwise called ‘ nṛpāśraya vyavahāra, ’ wrongs for which proceedings are set on foot by the king ).

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Bṛhaspati was probably the first jurist to make a clear distinction between civil and criminal justice.³⁷⁴ He divided the eighteen titles into two groups, those springing from wealth ( 14 titles ) and those springing from injury to beings ( 4 titles ). This distinction was probably dimly perceived by even Gautama, when he says that in disputes based on injury there is no hard and fast rule about witnesses ( i. e. about their interest in the subject of dispute ).³⁷⁵ Bṛhaspati like Nārada lays down the rule that a legal decision should not be arrived at merely on the basis of śāstra and that when a decision is devoid of reasoning, there is loss of dharma, for even a good man may be held to be a bad one or what is good may be held to be sinful in a judicial proceeding, just as Māṇḍavya was held to be a thief on a decision without thoughtful reasoning.³⁷⁶ Bṛhaspati gives such elaborate definitions and rules about procedure from the filing of the plaint to the passing of the decree that he can very well stand comparison with modern legislators on the same subjects.

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³⁷⁴ तदाह बृहस्पतिः। द्विपदो व्यवहारश्च धनहिंसासमुद्भवः। द्विसप्तधार्थमूलश्च हिंसामूलश्चतुर्विधः॥ व्यवहारमातृका of जीमूत. p. 277 ; vide also स्मृतिच० ( व्य. p. 9 ) ‘ पारुष्ये द्वे वधश्चैव परस्त्रीसंग्रहस्तथा। हिंसोद्भवानि चत्वारि पदान्याह बृहस्पतिः ’.

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³⁷⁵ न पीडाकृते निबन्धः। गौ. ध. सू. 13. 9 on which हरदत्त says ‘ पीडाकरणे हिंसाविषये। साक्षिणां निबन्धो न निरूप्यः। अर्थसंबन्धादि न किंचिदपि दूषणं भवति ।’

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³⁷⁶ केवलं शास्त्रमाश्रित्य न कर्तव्यो हि निर्णयः। युक्तिहीने विचारे तु धर्महानिः प्रजायते ॥ चोरोऽचोरो साध्वसाधु जायेत व्यवहारतः। युक्ति बिना विचारेण माण्डव्यश्चौरतां गतः ॥ quoted by अपरार्क on याज्ञ. II. 1 ; compare नारद ( व्यवहारमातृका chap. I. 42 ) : यात्यचौरोपि चोरत्वं चौरश्चायात्यचौरताम् । अचोरश्चौरतां प्राप्तो माण्डव्यो व्यवहारतः॥ For the story of माण्डव्य, who kept silent, vide Ādiparva 107.

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Nārada and Bṛhaspati agree very closely in several respects. For example, both speak of three kinds of proof, four parts of a judicial proceeding, almost the same defects of plaints, four kinds of answer, four divisions of the law of gift and their subdivisions, five modes of recovering debts, four kinds of sāhasa.

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We have seen that Nārada departs from Manu in several essential matters. On the other hand Bṛhaspati follows Manu very closely. But he too differs on some points from Manu, for example, we saw above how Bṛhaspati dissents from Manu on the question of the divisibility of clothes &c. (note 285). He appears to differ from Manu as to the maximum interest allowed on corn, fruit, wool and beasts of burden.³⁷⁷ Manu and Nārada are both silent as to the widow's right to succeed to her deceased husband's estate. But Bṛhaspati agreeing with Yājñavalkya makes her the first heir of her sonless husband.³⁷⁸

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³⁷⁷ हिरण्ये द्विगुणा वृद्धिस्त्रिगुणा वस्त्रकुप्यके । धान्ये चतुर्गुणा प्रोक्ता शदे वाह्ये लवेषु च ॥ बृहस्पति quoted by अपरार्क on याज्ञ. II. 39; compare मनु 8. 151.

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³⁷⁸ आम्नाये स्मृतितन्त्रे च लोकाचारे च सूरिभिः। शरीरार्धं स्मृता भार्या पुण्यापुण्यफले समा ॥ यस्य नोपरता भार्या देहार्थं तस्य जीवति । जीवत्यर्धशरीरेऽर्थं कथमन्यः समाप्नुयात् ॥ सकुल्यैर्विद्यमानैस्तु पितृभ्रातृसनाभिभिः । असुतस्य प्रमीतस्य पत्नी तद्भागहारिणी ॥ बृहस्पति quoted by अपरार्क on याज्ञ. II. 135. The Mit. has the last verse.

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These considerations make it clear that Bṛhaspati is certainly later than Manu and Yāj. It is difficult to state his exact relationship to Nārada. He agrees more closely with Manu than Nārada does, but in some respects such as definitions and the rights of women he shows great advance over Nārada. So he is probably a contemporary of or not much later than Nārada. He employs the word nāṇaka.³⁷⁹ He defines a dīnāra, also called "suvarṇa", as equal to twelve dhānakas and says that a dhānaka was equal to four aṇḍikas, an aṇḍikā being a copper paṇa weighing a *karṣa* and bearing a stamp.³⁸⁰ This agrees with what Nārada says about dīnāra.

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³⁷⁹ कुलीनदक्षानलसैः प्राज्ञैर्नाणकवेदिभिः । अपरार्क on याज्ञ. II. 259; वि. र. p. 711 and वीर० p. 383.

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³⁸⁰ Vide note 368 above. ताम्रकर्षकृता मुद्रा विज्ञेयः कार्षिकः पणः । स एव चाण्डिका प्रोक्ता ताश्चतस्रस्तु धानका ॥ ता द्वादश सुवर्णस्तु दीनाराख्यः स एव तु । बृह० quoted in स्मृतिच० p. 99, वि. र. p. 667. कात्यायन is quoted on sama page by the स्मृतिच० for a similar definition.

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Dr. Jolly (S. B. E. vol. 33 p. 276) assigns Bṛhaspati to the 6th or 7th century A. D. But this is much later by several centuries than the evidence warrants. Kātyāyana was looked upon as an authoritative writer along with Nārada and Bṛhaspati by Viśvarūpa and Medhātithi. This position he could not have attained in a century or two. So he cannot be placed later than the 6th century. Kātyāyana in several places quotes Bṛhaspati as an authority. Aparārka quotes Kātyāyana as saying that according to Bṛhaspati pastures, ways, clothes that are worn on the body, debts (or books for use according to others) and what is set apart for religious purposes should not be partitioned.³⁸¹ Kātyāyana says that according to Bṛhaspati, that wealth which a man acquires by means of his learning after refuting an opponent in a contest with a stake for the winner is styled "vidyādhana" and is not liable to partition³⁸²; and what is acquired through valour &c. by persons that were taught in the family or learnt under their father should be partitioned among the brothers, according to Bṛhaspati. If a man falsely denies his liability and if only a part of the claim is brought home to him, then he should be made to pay the whole.³⁸³ That the statement of a witness may be relied upon on a matter under his direct perception owing to his being near the plaintiff and the defendant and not otherwise; so says Bṛhaspati.³⁸⁴ The foregoing examples show that Kātyāyana looked upon Bṛhaspati as an authority who must therefore have flourished several centuries before. Therefore Bṛhaspati cannot be placed later than the 4th century A. D. As he knew the extant Manusmṛti, was later than Yāj. and probably than Nārada, Bṛhaspati must have flourished between 200 and 400 A. D. This conclusion is strengthened by the fact that Viśvarūpa quotes, without making any difference, prose and verse passages of Bṛhaspati and thereby shows that in his opinion the jurist Bṛhaspati (in verse) was identical with the political writer Bṛhaspati and was a very ancient writer in his day. Medhātithi (on Manu 9. 153) quotes the verse "na pratigrahabhūr" (ascribed to Bṛhaspati by others) as Smṛtyantara. Bṛhaspati is cited in a few cases as referring to his own views in the third person³⁸⁵; sometimes he uses the first person also.³⁸⁶ Nothing can be said about his country at present. In a well-known passage Bṛhaspati refers to the usages of the southern people, of the people in the Madhyadeśa, of the eastern and northern people.³⁸⁷ In a striking and beautiful passage Bṛhaspati compares vyavahāra with yajña,³⁸⁸ the king with Viṣṇu, the successful party with the sacrificer and the defeated party with the victim, the plaint and the reply to food and the *pratijñā* to the sacrificial offering (prepared from food), the śāstras to the three Vedas and the *sabhyas* to the priests in a sacrifice. Bṛhaspati seems to have been very fond of such long-drawn metaphors.³⁸⁹

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³⁸¹ गोप्रचारश्च रथ्या च वस्त्रं यच्चाङ्गयोजितम् । प्रयोज्यं न विभज्येत धर्मार्थे च बृहस्पतिः ॥ वि. र. p. 505 and अपरार्क on याज्ञ. II. 119.

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³⁸² परं निरस्य यल्लब्धं विद्यातो द्यूतपूर्वकम् । विद्याधनं तु तद्विद्यान्न विभाज्यं बृहस्पतिः ॥ quoted by अपरार्क on या. II. 119; परा. मा. III. 2. p. 559.

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³⁸³ सर्वापलापं यः कृत्वा मिथ्याल्पमपि संवदेत् । सर्वमेव तु दाप्यं स्यादिति युक्तो बृहस्पतिः ॥ व्यवहारमातृका of जीमूत० p. 311.

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³⁸⁴ अर्थिप्रत्यर्थिसान्निध्यादनुभूतं तु यद्भवेत् । तद्ग्राह्यं साक्षिणो वाक्यमन्यथाह बृहस्पतिः ॥ quoted in the व्यवहारमातृका of जीमूत. p. 317.

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³⁸⁵ ताडनं बन्धनं चैव तथैव च विडम्बनम् । एष दण्डो हि शूद्रस्य नार्थदण्डो बृहस्पतिः ॥ परा. मा. III. 1. p. 212; स्मृतिच०

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³⁸⁶ एष दण्डः समाख्यातः पुरुषापेक्षया मया । quoted by अपरार्क on याज्ञ. II. 211.

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³⁸⁷ उदुह्यते दाक्षिणात्यैर्मातुलस्य सुता द्विजैः । मध्यदेशे कर्मकराः शिल्पिनश्च गवाशिनः ॥ मत्स्यादाश्च नराः पूर्वे व्यभिचाररताः स्त्रियः। उत्तरे मद्यपा नार्यः स्पृश्या नॄणां रजस्वलाः ॥ वीर. p. 29, व्य. म. &c.

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³⁸⁸ यज्ञे संपूज्यते विष्णुर्व्यवहारे महीपतिः । जयी तु यजमानोत्र जितः पशुरुदाहृतः ॥ पूर्वपक्षोत्तरावाद्यं प्रतिज्ञा च हविः स्मृता । त्रयी शास्त्राणि सभ्यास्तु ऋत्विजो दक्षिणा-दने ॥ quoted in व्य. मा. p. 284.

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³⁸⁹ e. g. विप्रो धर्मद्रुमस्यादिः स्कन्दशाखे महीपतिः । सचिवाः पत्रपुष्पाणि फलं न्यायेन पालनम् ॥ यशो वित्तं फलरसो भोगोपयहपूजनम् । अजेयत्वं लोकपंक्तिः स्वर्गे स्थानं च शाश्वतम् ॥ वीर० p. 14. Compare नारद (व्य. मा. I. 33 for the second verse).

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The Smṛticandrikā quotes about seventy verses of Bṛhaspati in the Āhnika portion and about forty on Śrāddha. In the later works like the Parāśara-Mādhavīya, the Nirṇayasindhu and Saṁskāra-Kaustubha, the number of verses quoted from Bṛhaspati is much larger than even those quoted by the Smṛticandrikā. Those verses are quoted on such saṁskāras as puṁsavana, nāmakaraṇa, caula, upanayana, vivāha and also on āśauca and purification of dravyas. Even the Mitākṣarā quotes several verses of Bṛhaspati on matters other than vyavahāra. For example the Mit. on Yāj. I. 210 quotes a verse of Bṛhaspati that a nivartana (of land) is equal to 30 daṇḍas in area (daṇḍa being seven cubits in length) and ten *nivartanas* are equal to a *gocarma*.³⁹⁰ On Yāj. III. 17 the Mit. quotes two verses of Bṛhaspati about impurity on birth or death &c. On Yāj. III. 21 the Mit. cites the definition of deśāntara given by Bṛhaspati.³⁹¹ On Yāj. III. 24 the Mit. quotes Bṛhaspati's opinion that the period of mourning on the death of one's maternal grandfather, ācārya or śrotriya is three days. On Yāj. III. 253 the Mit. quotes Bṛhaspati's rule as to prāyaścitta for consciously drinking wine.³⁹² Vide also Mit. on Yāj. III. 30, 250, 254, 260, 290 for other quotations from Bṛhaspati.

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³⁹⁰ सप्तहस्तेन दण्डेन त्रिंशद् दण्डा निवर्तनम् । दश तान्येव गोचर्म दत्त्वा स्वर्गे महीयते ॥ A similar verse occurs in the बृहस्पतिस्मृति (Jivananda part I. p. 645) where the reading is दशहस्तेन.

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³⁹¹ महानद्यन्तरं यत्र गिरिर्वा व्यवधायकः । वाचो यत्र विभिद्यन्ते तद् देशान्तरमुच्यते ॥ देशान्तरं वदन्त्येके षष्टियोजनमायतम् । चत्वारिंशद्वदन्त्यन्ये त्रिंशदन्ये तथैव च ॥

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³⁹² सुरापाने कामकृते ज्वलन्तीं तां विनिक्षिपेत् । मुखे तया विनिर्दग्धो मृतः शुद्धिमवाप्नुयात् ॥

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The foregoing therefore establishes that Bṛhaspati was known at least to the Mit. and later writers as an expounder in verse not only of vyavahāra but also of other topics of dharma as well. As over a thousand verses of Bṛhaspati (including about 800 on vyavahāra) are quoted it appears that his work must have been an extensive one comprising several thousand verses. Such a work of Bṛhaspati has yet to be recovered.

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The Mit. on Yāj. III. 261 quotes a Vṛddha-Bṛhaspati on the nine varieties of saṁkara.³⁹³ Kullūka on Manu (9. 181) cites a verse of Vṛddha-Bṛhaspati about the eleven subsidiary sons (vide note 283 above, where the verse is ascribed to Bṛhaspati). Hemādri (Caturvarga vol. III, part 2, p. 472) quotes a Jyotir-Bṛhaspati on the prohibition of a śrāddha on the thirteenth tithi of the dark half. Aparārka on Yāj. II. 3-4 quotes three verses from Vṛddha-Bṛhaspati about the derivation of the word "prāḍ-vivāka" and one on the punishment for sabhyas who take bribes. Three of these verses are ascribed to Bṛhaspati in the Pārāśara-Mādhavīya and other works and one of them to Kātyāyana in the Vyavahāra-mātṛkā.

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³⁹³ यथाह वृद्धबृहस्पतिः । एकशय्यासनं पङ्क्तिर्भाण्डपक्वान्नमिश्रणम् । याज्याध्यापने योनिश्चतथा च सह भोजनम् । नवधा संकरः प्रोक्तो न कर्तव्योधमैः सह ॥ It is ascribed to बृहस्पति by the गृहस्थरत्नाकर (folio 130a of D. C. of A 1883-84).

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