History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v7.c96.s1.25

v7.c96.s1.25

Our cultural history shows some central features which may be mentioned in one place here. The first is that there has been an unbroken religious tradition from the Vedic times almost to the present day. Vedic mantras are still employed throughout the whole of India in religious rites and ceremonies by all brāhmaṇas and by a large number of the members of castes claiming to be Kṣatriyas and Vaiśyas. The Vedic gods are not entirely forgotten. Kindling of Agni is still required at the beginning of all rites, Viṣṇu (though not so frequently praised as Indra, Agni or Varuṇa, yet often enough, is praised in Ṛg I. 22. 16-21, I. 154. 1-6, I. 155. 1-6, VI. 69 1-8, both Indra and Viṣṇu are praised in Ṛg. VII. 99. 1-7, Atharvaveda VII. 27. 4-9) and Śiva (Rudra of the Ṛgveda, transformed a great deal yet highly praised in Ṛg. II 1.6, II. 33,9, X. 92.9 where he is spoken of as Śiva) are even now the principal deities worshipped In the morning and evening Sandhyā worship, brāhmaṇas in many parts of India still repeat respectively verses addressed to Mitra (Ṛg III. 59) and Varuṇa (Ṛg I. 25). The second feature is that, India being a vast country (as large as the whole of Europe minus Russia), central authority in political power never existed (except perhaps for a short time under Aśoka). The ideal was that of supreme ruler (*samrāt* or *cakravartin*). But, if a king submitted, acknowledged the prowess of the successful conqueror and paid some tribute, no samrāt troubled himself to look into the affairs of the kingdoms ruled by petty kings. There could, therefore, be no common front against a foreign invader, no uniformity in laws, customs and practices and there were frequent wars among kings and petty princes. A third feature was that there did not develop a serious clash of cultures, there was tolerance about varying ideologies and beliefs and constant adaptation to create harmony in diversity.