Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthashastra of Kautilya), Vol. I c5: Chapter I. Preliminary. Mining. Irrigation. Meteorology

Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya), Vol. I c5

Language: English

Chapter I. Preliminary. Mining. Irrigation. Meteorology

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§ 1: *Preliminary.*—The Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya, which has been recently edited and published by Mr. R. Shama Sastri, possesses a great interest and importance not only to students of Sanskrit literature, but also to students of Indian history. It throws a flood of light on the material, social and political condition of the ancient Hindus during the third and fourth centuries before the Christian era. It is in fact a unique record of the secular aspects or developments of Indian civilization in that brilliant period of Indian history—the Age of Chandra Gupta. For information regarding this period or the sources of its history, we had hitherto unfortunately to depend mainly upon the meagre accounts left by Greek writers whose interest in India was first roused by the invasion of Alexander. This work of Kauṭilya, however, removes to a great extent our want in this direction by opening up a mine of information which is as full as it is reliable.

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I therefore propose to utilize this work, in a number of chapters, as a source of information regarding the aforesaid period.

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One of the most striking features of Chandra Gupta’s government revealed by the Arthaśāstra is that it achieved many triumphs in peace which were no less than those of war—in fact, Chandra Gupta was as well known for the numerical strength and the efficiency of his army and the organization of his war office as for those regulations and institutions which ensure the material welfare of a country. In the present chapter I shall refer to some of the most prominent works and institutions of public utility of his time, which are definitely indicated by passages in the Arthaśāstra.

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There can be little doubt that the department of public works in the government of Chandra Gupta was fairly well organized, with its scope and functions clearly defined. The area of its activity was quite extensive, and included among other things the working of mines, the opening of irrigation works, the establishment of factories; the maintenance of preserves and grazing grounds, of highways of commerce, waterways, land-routes, and other facilities for communication; the establishment of markets and stores; the construction of embankments, dams and bridges; the planting of fruit and flower trees, of medicinal plants and herbs (i.e. the establishment of Ayurvedic and pharmaceutical gardens); and lastly, the State protection of the disabled, the helpless and the infirm, and also of the lower animals, thus anticipating some of the tendencies of modern legislation. I quote below some of the passages which contain references to these works and institutions:—

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(i) आकरकर्मान्तरप्रवर्त्तनजनपदनिवेशान् वारि-स्थलपथपण्यपत्तनानि च निवेशयेत् । —Bk. II, जनपदनिवेशः, p. 47.

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(ii) सेतुबन्धयोरप्यार्योदकात् सस्योदकः श्रेयान् । —Bk. VII, कोशसंग्रहः, p. 297.

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(iii) एवं द्रव्य द्विपवनं सेतुबन्धमथाकरान् रक्षेत् पूर्वकृतान् राजा नवांशामिप्रवर्धयेत् । —Bk. II, जनपदनिवेशः, p. 49.

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(iv) उत्तरपश्चिमभागं यथमेवम्यस्तं । —Bk. II, दुर्गनिवेशः, p. 55.

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(v) सहोदकमाहार्यदकम् वा सेतुं बन्धयेत् । अन्येषां वा बधतां भूमिमार्गवृक्षोपकारदानुग्रहं कुर्यात् । —Bk. II, जनपदनिवेशः, p. 47.

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(vi) पृथग्भूमिसंस्थीयं महामात्रीयं, विभक्ताजीपुरुषव्याममवसारतः सुगुप्तकक्षं वप्रप्राकारं कारयेत् । —Bk. II, सन्निधातृचेयकर्म, p. 58.

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(vii) भिषग्भेषज्यागारात् प्रासादविप्रकृष्टभेषजं गृहीत्वा पाचक- पोषकाभ्यामात्मना च प्रतिखाद्य राज्ञे प्रयच्छेत् । —Bk. I, आत्मारक्षितकम्, p. 44.

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(viii) गन्धभेषज्योशीरकोरवेर पिच्छाणुकारीणां वपासं भूमिषु च खात्वाऽनूपावीषधीवापयेत् । —Bk. II, सीताऽध्यक्षः, p. 117.

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(ix) सेतुं वनं व्रजं वणिकपथं चावेक्षेत । —Bk. II, समाहर्तृसमुदयप्रस्थापनम्, p. 59.

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(x) (a) वास्तुकवास्तुकवस्तुन्यनाथां राजाविभृयात्
(b) क्षेत्र-वास्त-विपपादैः बाधिभिश्च पशुपत्रजान् (रक्षेत) । —Bk. II, जनपदनिवेशः, pp. 47, 48.

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(xi) पथः प्राचीना राजमार्गाश्च उदीचीनाः । चतुर्द्वारकरा रक्षा राजमार्ग-द्रोणमुख-स्थानीय-राष्ट्र- विवीतपथाः । सयोनीय-युद्धप्रमाण-पास-पथाष्ट-दण्डाः । चतुरं खसेतुवथपथः । द्विहस्तविचेथपथः । पचारथ्यो रथपथसारः पशुपथः । द्वि हस्तिप्रमाणपथः । —Bk. II, दुर्गनिवेशः, pp. 54, 55.

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§ 2: Mining.—Let us first turn to the working of mines. The only two passages in Megasthenes that are worthy of note in this connexion are:—

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"And while the soil bears on its surface all kinds of fruits which are known to cultivation, it has also underground numerous veins of all sorts of metals, for it contains much gold and silver, and copper and iron in no small quantity, and even tin and other metals which are employed in making articles of use and ornament as well as the implements and accoutrements of war."—Book I, Fragment i.

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The second passage is:—

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"The robes are worked in gold and ornamented with precious stones, and they wear also flowered garments made of the finest muslin."—Book II, Fragment xxvii.

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These passages show, no doubt, that there were extensive mining operations in those days, but do not satisfy our curiosity as to their details. The Arthaśāstra, however, does this. According to it, there were two classes of mines, viz. (i) ocean mines and (ii) land mines, and expert superintendents were appointed in charge of each class. The duty of the superintendent of ocean mines was to look after the collection of diamonds and other precious stones, pearls, corals, conch-shells and salt. The regulation of the trade in these articles was also one of his duties. It may be noted in passing that ocean mining unquestionably indicates great progress in the art of navigation and shipbuilding, which will be dealt with hereafter.

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A scientific expert was appointed to the post of superintendent of land mines. In the first place, he had to perform the difficult work of prospecting and discovering new mines on plains and mountain slopes. He had to examine and infer from slags, ashes and other such indications whether a mine had been exhausted or not. This department was manned by several other experts, as also by mining labourers. It was also equipped with the necessary scientific apparata.

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The superintendent was guided in his work of prospecting by his knowledge of the signs and properties of the mineral ores. He had to pay particular attention to the depth of colour, weight, smell, taste, oiliness, adhesiveness, power of amalgamating with particular metals, and several other mechanical and chemical properties of the ores, in order to ascertain the nature and richness of a mine. We find in the Arthaśāstra the properties of several metals classified, and the large number and variety of them necessarily lead one to the conclusion that mining reached a stage far above the rudimentary, and that the persons who devoted their attention to it possessed no small power of discrimination. As an illustration¹ I quote below the passage which enumerates the signs of the different kinds of silver ores. It says that the silver ores are those which have the colours of शङ्ख, कर्पूर, स्फटिक, नवनीत, कपोत, पारावत, विमलक, मयूरग्रीवा; of सस्यक, गोमेदक, गुड मत्स्यण्डिका; of कोविदार, पद्म, पाटली, कषाय, क्षौमपुष्प, अतसीपुष्प; which are found in combination with सीस, अञ्जन, are विस (smelling of raw meat), भिन्न, श्वेताभ, श्यामा, श्यामाभ, श्वेत and लेखाबिन्दुचित्र; do not split, and emit much foam and smoke. Similarly, we find mentioned the properties of the ores of gold, float-gold, bitumen, copper,² lead,³ tin, iron, etc. It is apparent from this that the classification is an elaborate one, and the industry in Chandra Gupta’s time reached an advanced stage.

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¹ शङ्ख-कर्पूर-स्फटिक-नवनीत-कपोत-पारावत-विमलक-मयूरग्रीवावर्णाः। सस्यक-गोमेदक-गुड-मत्स्यण्डिकावर्णाः। कोविदार पद्मपाटलीकषाय क्षौमपुष्पअतसीपुष्पवर्णाः। ससीसाः साञ्जनाः विसा भिन्नाः श्वेताभाः श्यामाः श्यामाभाः श्वेताः सर्वे वा लेखाबिन्दुचित्रा मृदवो ऽधममाना न स्फुटन्ति बहुफेनधुमाश्च रूप्यधातवः। —Bk. II, आकरकर्माप्रवर्तनम्, p. 82.

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² Ores of copper— भारिकस्निग्धो मृदुश्च प्रस्तरधातुर्भूमिभागो वा पिञ्जरो हरितः पाटलो लोहितो वा ताम्रधातुः। Ibid., p. 83.

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³ Ores of lead— काकमेचकः कपोतरोजनावर्णः श्वेतराजिनदो वा विस्रस्तोसधातुः। Ibid.

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When the superintendent discovered a new mine, he intimated it to Government, stating at the same time the nature of its contents. The Government had to decide whether it would work the mine directly or lease it out to private persons. It was only in the case of those mines that required a large outlay to work them that Government leased them out.

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The purification of the ores during the actual exploitation of the mines is an interesting study. The metals were purified by treating them with ingredients most of which were organic. The passage¹ quoted below enumerates these ingredients: तीक्ष्ण, urine, alkalies, राजवृक्ष, वट, पोत, cow’s bile, urine and dung of buffalo, etc. Again, metals were made permanently or temporarily malleable by chemically treating them with several ingredients, *e.g.* ashes of यव, माष, तिल, honey, sheep’s milk, clarified butter, powder of cow’s teeth and horn.¹ The passage bearing on this point asserts that even if a metal splits into a hundred thousand parts it can be rendered malleable by the prescribed methods. These methods, however, appear to us to be novel, and are quite different from what a metallurgist of the present day would use. But nevertheless they were of service in their day.

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¹ तेषाम् (धातूनाम्) अशुद्धा मृज्जमी वा तीक्ष्णमूत्रक्षारा-विता राजवृक्षवटपोतगोपित्तमूत्र-शकृ-पिण्डवदासत-प्रतीपापाच्यवक्षेपा वा विशुद्धास्भवन्ति । —Ibid., p. 82.

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¹ यवमाषतिलपलाशपोथक्षारैः गोक्षीरराजक्षीरैर्वा कदलीवल्कप्रतीवापो मार्दवकरः । मधुमधुकमजापयःसतीक्ष्णं घृतगुडकिण्वयुतं सकन्ददीकं—यदिपि शतसहस्रधा विभिन्नं भवति मृदुभिरेव तन्नियेकैः । मोदकष्टङ्कप्रतीवापो मृदुसधानः । —*Ibid.*, pp. 82, 83.

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After the metals had been purified, the superintendents who looked after the manufacture of articles from the metals took charge of them. There were several such superintendents, *e.g.* a superintendent of gold (सुवर्णाध्यक्षः) for manufacturing ornaments from gold; a superintendent of the inferior metals (लोहाध्यक्षः), viz. copper, lead, tin, bell-metal, ताम्र and लोभ, to manufacture commodities from them; a superintendent of the armoury (आयुधाध्यक्षः), one of whose duties was to look after the manufacture of metal weapons; a superintendent of the mint (लक्षणध्यक्षः) for minting coins from gold, silver, copper, etc.; a superintendent of the treasury (कोशाध्यक्षः), one of whose principal duties was to look after the formation of ornaments of precious stones such as necklaces and bracelets. Commerce in the manufactured metal articles was in the hands of Government. There was a separate superintendent to look after and regulate commerce in salt (लवणाध्यक्षः).

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There were regulations for the departments of the superintendents; but leaving them for the present, let us turn to the different kinds of rates that were levied from mines.¹ These were, as the passage quoted below shows—(1) शुल्क, (2) विभाग, (3) व्याजी, (4) परिघ, (5) अत्यय, (6) शुल्क, (7) वैचरम्, (8) रूप, (9) रूप and (10) रूपिक.

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¹ एवं शुल्कं विभागं च व्याजीं परिघमत्ययम् शुल्कं वैचरं दण्डं रूपं रूपिकमेव च । Ibid., p. 85.

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Before leaving the subject of mines, it should be noted that in Bk. IV, वाद्यकर्मायुधोयः, there is a passage which lays down the punishment for a Brâhman who has committed a heinous offence, viz., that though he must not be tortured in any case, his property may be.

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confiscated or he may be condemned to the mines.¹ This resembles the punishment inflicted in Rome on criminals for an offence of the grosser sort.

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¹ (ब्राह्मणं पापकर्मणम्) कुर्यान्निर्विषयं राजा वासयेदाकरेसु वा । Bk. IV, p. 220.

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§ 3: Irrigation.—We now turn to the next point, viz. irrigation. That there was an elaborate system of irrigation in the time of Chandra Gupta is already known to us through Megasthenes:

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“The greater part of the soil is under irrigation, and consequently bears two crops in the course of a year.”—Bk. I, Fragment i.

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And again,

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“Some superintend the rivers, measure the land as is done in Egypt, and inspect the sluices by which water is let out from the main canals into other branches, so that everyone may have an equal supply of it.”—Bk. III, Fragment xxxiv.

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These statements are borne out by the Arthaśāstra, and, moreover, certain details are added which we do not find in Megasthenes. In the passages

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हस्तप्रावर्त्तिममुदभागं पञ्चमं दद्युः ।
स्वयंप्रावर्त्तिमं चतुर्थम् ।
स्रोतयन्त्रप्रावर्त्तिमं च तृतीयम् ।
चतुर्थं नदीसरस्तटाककूपोद्घाटम् ।
—Bk. II, सीताध्यक्षः, p. 117.

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we see that water-rates (उदकभाग) varied according to the modes of irrigation, which were four in number, viz. irrigation by hand (हस्तप्रावर्तिम), irrigation by water carried on shoulders (स्कन्धप्रावर्तिम), irrigation by some mechanical contrivance (स्रोतयन्त्रप्रावर्तिम), and irrigation by water raised from tanks and rivers (नदीसरस्तटाकूपोद्घातम्). The rates were one-fifth, one-fourth, one-third and one-fourth of the produce respectively. Again, in Bk. III, वास्तुविक्रयः, p. 170, which speaks of remission of taxes in the case of repair of old tanks and construction of new ones, and also in the case of improvement and extension of waterworks, we find it laid down—वातप्रवर्तिमन्विजिवजाबतन-तटाककेदारा रामषष्ठभागातिरिक्तमन्येभ्यो वा यथो-पकारं दद्युः। which shows that there were not only means of raising water by bullocks, but also contrivances worked by wind power, i.e. windmills. In the next passage—

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सेतुभ्यो मुक्ततोयमपारे षट्पणो दमः
पारे वा तोयमप्येषं प्रमादेनोपस्रवतः।

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a fine of six paṇas is laid down for letting out the water of canals otherwise than through the sluice-gate (अपारे) and for hindering the flow of water through the same (पारे). This passage confirms the existence of sluice-gates referred to by Megasthenes.

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In the above couplet the word सेतुभ्यः cannot be taken as the technical term for canals; for the term is a general one and has been used in several senses in the Arthaśāstra, *e.g.* bridges, watercourses, embankments.¹ But in Book II,² सीताप्यक्षः, we meet with the word कुल्यावापानां,³ which means countries where water is drawn from कुल्या. This term कुल्या means an artificial watercourse, and was perhaps the technical name for canals.

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¹ Bk. III, p. 166; Bk. II, pp. 47 and 60; Bk. VII, pp. 297 and 305.

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² Also Bk. II, pp. 54 and 122.

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³ (अमितम् वर्षप्रमाणम्) देशम्यानां च कुल्यावापानां च । p. 116.

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Special care was taken for keeping tanks and other waterworks in good repair, and the minimum fine in the case of those who were prone to neglecting them, viz. the owners of rent-free lands, was fixed at double the loss caused by their remissness.⁴ There were other regulations, *e.g.* one prohibiting men from emptying a tank of its water and from allowing the water of a higher tank to flow into a lower one unless the latter had been useless for three consecutive years.

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⁴ अप्रतीकारे दीगद्विगुणो दण्डः, p. 170.

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§ 4: *Meteorology.*—I cannot conclude this account of irrigation without pointing out that in those remote days the people had a workable knowledge of the science of meteorology. They had some sort of *rain-gauge* which enabled them to measure the rainfall in a particular tract of country in a given time.¹

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¹ कोष्ठाम्रोपस्थितं वर्षप्रमाणं कुण्डं स्थापयेत्—Bk. II, सत्रि-धाटचेयकर्म, p. 58. A vessel with its mouth 1 aratni wide was used as a *rain-gauge*, and one such vessel was put before the store-house. (1 aratni = 24 angulas = about 2 ft.; an angula = the middle joint of the middle finger of a middle-sized man)—मध्यमस्य पुरुषस्य मध्यमाया अङ्गुल्या मध्यपर्वोऽङ्गुलम्—Bk. II, देशकालमानम्, p. 106.

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(i) कोष्ठाम्रोपस्थितं वर्षप्रमाणम् मध्यमानूपानां देशवापानां त्रयोविंशतिरत्नीनाममितमपरान्तानां हैमन्तानां च कुशावापानां च कालतः ।

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(ii) वर्षत्रिभागः पूर्वपश्चिमानयोः, द्विचत्वारिंशन्मध्यमयोः सुषा-रूपम् ।

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(iii) तस्योपलब्धिर्वृक्षगुल्मलतानां गमनमभ्युधानेभ्यः शुक्रोद-यासप्तमचारेभ्यः सूर्यस्य प्रकृतेर्विकृताच्च । सूर्यादीनां चरिभिः । इङ्गितैश्च सस्यानां सम्पादिता । शुक्राद्वृष्टिरिति ।

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(iv) त्र्यहस्पृगादिका मेघा अशीतिः कर्षशीकराः पञ्चाशतमेषां रसा वृष्टिस्समाहिता ।²

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² *Vide* सीमाध्यक्षः, pp. 115, 116.

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The lines quoted above show that they arrived at definite conclusions as to the quantity of rainfall in particular places. In Jaṅgala (जङ्गल) countries the rainfall is 16 droṇas (a droṇa being a cubic measure); in the country of the Aśmakas (अश्मक), 13½ droṇas; in Avantī (अवन्ती), 23 droṇas, and so on [passage (i)]. Besides, the rainfall is considered to be even, if it occurs during the commencing and closing months, *i.e.* Śrāvaṇa and Kārtika, and two-thirds in the middle months, *i.e.* Bhādra and Āśvin [passage (ii)]. The third passage speaks of the forecast of rainfall that can be made by observing the position, motion, etc., of the sun and Venus and Jupiter; the germination of seeds can be inferred from them also. The last passage indicates an elaborate classification of the clouds according to their characteristics. It speaks of three kinds of such clouds as poured in heavy showers for seven days together, eighty kinds of clouds that rained minute drops, and sixty kinds that appeared with sunshine. All this shows that the science of meteorology was brought to such a developed stage that the people could depend on its conclusions and guide their actions in their day-to-day work of sowing seeds and reaping harvest.

Linked texts (2)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Ἰνδικά — Μεγασθένης, Ancient Greek