Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthashastra of Kautilya), Vol. I c6: Chapter II. The Department of Live Stock: Cattle and Pasture
Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya), Vol. I c6
- Language
- English
Contents
- c6.s1 Medical Treatment of Cattle — 30 parts
Chapter II. The Department of Live Stock: Cattle and Pasture
c6.2
WE have in the previous chapter dealt with some of the public works of utility as described in the Arthaśāstra. We have seen how a special department existed for the development of mining, the impetus to the discovery of mines being given in the shape of a share in the mines discovered;¹ and how the department was placed under the charge of experts conversant with all the processes of that difficult industry. We have also seen how the promotion of irrigation was looked upon as one of the duties of the State and was not left to the meagre resources of private enterprise. In connexion with irrigation, we have also seen how the necessity of meteorological observations was recognized, and even simple contrivances were in use for purposes of rain-gauge (वर्षमानम् उपकरणम्).
c6.3
¹ If a private person discovered a mine, he got one-sixth of it as his share; if he happened to be a Government servant, one-twelfth: खनिरत्ननिधिनिवेदनेषु षष्ठमंशनिवेशं लभेत । द्वाद-शमंशं भृतकः । मतसप्तधाऽऽर्ध राजगामी निधिः । उभयषष्ठमंशं दद्यात्—Bk. IV, कावरकचषम्, p. 202.
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We shall now turn to other institutions of public utility maintained by the State. It is a noteworthy fact that the importance of live stock to India, pre-eminently the country of agriculture, was then fully realized, and special care was taken by the Government for their healthy growth and improvement. Even at the present day Indian agriculture has been held to be suffering much from want of proper grazing grounds and commons for cattle and of a proper supply of fodder;¹ but in Chandra Gupta’s time we find a special department to provide for pastures and grazing grounds for a proper supply of fodder and for the welfare of live stock in general. There were no less than six chief officers for running this department: (i) गोऽध्यक्ष, the superintendent of cows; (ii) विवीताध्यक्ष, the superintendent of pastures and grazing grounds; (iii) सुनाध्यक्ष, the gamekeeper; (iv) हस्तिध्यक्ष, the superintendent of elephants; (v) कुप्याध्यक्ष, the superintendent of forests and forest produce; and (vi) अश्वाध्यक्ष, the superintendent of horses.
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¹ Compare in this connexion the following extracts from the article on agriculture in the *Imperial Gazetteer* (new edition): “In the deltaic areas and in the rice-tracts generally, the cattle are miserably weak. Grazing lands are here limited or totally wanting . . . General improvement is hopeless without assured fodder supplies . . .”—Vol. iii, pp. 77, 78.
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Let us first turn to the first of these officers. It must not be supposed that the superintendent of cows, as the name indicates, had to take care of cows alone. In fact, he had to do with other animals also, such as buffaloes, sheep, goats, asses, camels, pigs, mules and dogs. One of his chief duties was to appoint milkers (दोहक), churners (मन्थक) and hunters (लुब्धक) for fixed wages, to each of whom was assigned a herd of 100 heads.¹ He had also to see that the bulls were tamed and trained to the yoke by the cowherds (गोपालक), and that strings were put through their noses,² as also to settle terms with herdsmen for the tending of animals under their charge. These terms were of four kinds:—
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¹ गोपालक-पिण्डारक (buffalo-herdsmen)—दोहक-मन्थकलुब्धकाः शतं शतं धेनूनां विरक्षभूताः पालयेयुः । क्षीरघृतभृताश्च वत्सानुपघ्न्युरिति वेतनोपग्राहिकम्—Bk. II, गोऽध्यक्षः, p. 128.
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² दोहकालमतिक्रामतस्तत्फलदानं दण्डः । रतेन नस्यकर्म-युगविभजनकाष्ठा व्याख्याताः—Ibid., p. 180.
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(i) Appointing, on fixed wages, cowherds and buffalo-herdsmen, each of whom was placed in charge of 100 head. This arrangement was called वेतनप्रतिपादिक.¹
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¹ *Vide* footnote (¹) on previous page.
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(ii) Appointing, on payment of a certain fee, cowherds, each of whom was placed in charge of a herd of 100 head, containing in equal numbers the following five classes of cattle, viz. aged cows (जरद्गु), milch cows (धेनु), pregnant cows (गर्भिणी), young cows (पष्ठीही), and female calves (वत्सतरी). The fee was 8 vârakas (i.e. 3 3/20 seers) of ghee, as well as the tail and branded² skin of dead cows. This system was called करप्रतिकर.³
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² There were special brands to distinguish private cattle from the royal. Tampering with the royal brands was punishable: परपशूनां राजाङ्केन परिवर्त्तयिता रूपस्य पूर्वं साहसदण्डं दद्यात् । (गोऽध्यक्षः) ।
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³ जरद्गु-धेनु-गर्भिणी-पष्ठीही-वत्सतरीणां समविभागं रूप-शतमेकः पालयेत् । घृतखादी वारकान् पषिकं पुच्छं चर्मं वार्षिकं दद्यादिति करप्रतिकरः ।—*Ibid.*
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(iii) Appointing, on the principle of profit-sharing, cowherds whose herd comprised cattle with diseased limbs (बाधिताङ्गानि), those which could not be milked or were difficult to milk (अदोहदुर्दहाः), and those that killed their calves (पुत्रघ्नी). Each herd was composed of the above four classes in equal numbers. As the tending of these herds was difficult, it was rewarded by a share in the out-turn from the herds. This arrangement was known as भृतकभृतक.¹
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¹ बाधितान्यङ्गान्वदोहदुर्दहापुत्रघ्नीनां च समविभागं रूपशतम् पालयतस्तस्यातिकं भागं द्युरिति भृतकभृतकम् । —Ibid.
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(iv) Engagement of the services of the superintendent by private parties for tending their herds in the event of their own inability to do so, either from danger of thieves, or from apprehended danger from forests. In these cases, the fee charged by the Government was a tenth of the produce. This system was termed भाजानुप्रविष्टक.²
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² परचक्राटवी भयादनुप्रविष्टाणां पशूनां पालयमथैष दशमं भागं द्युरिति भाजानुप्रविष्टकम् ।—Ibid.
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One other particular regarding these herds should be noted in passing. The total number of each herd was fixed at 100, but the number of male animals in each herd varied with its composition. A herd of 100 head of asses and mules was to contain five male animals; that of goats and sheep, ten; while that of cows, buffaloes or camels, four.¹
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¹ पञ्चवर्षं वराहानामजावीनां दशवर्षम् अश्वं गोमहिषोष्ट्राणां यूथं कुर्याच्चतुर्वृषम् ।—*Ibid.*
c6.20
There was a register of cattle, kept by the superintendent. In it were noted the following varieties of cattle, viz.—male calves (वत्साः), steer (वत्सतराः), tamable draught oxen (दम्यावहिनो वृषाः), bulls for impregnating the herd (उक्षवः वृषाः), oxen for pulling carts drawn by pairs (युगवाहनास्तद्वहाः वृषाः), cattle of which the flesh was food (घ्नाः), buffaloes (महिषाः), draught buffaloes (पृष्ठभारवाहिनः महिषाः), female calves (वत्सिकाः), heifers (वत्सतरी), young cows (पड्वी), pregnant cows (गर्भिणी), milch cows (धेनु), cows and buffaloes that had not yet calved (अप्रजाताः) or were barren (वन्ध्याः), male and female calves only a month or two old or still younger (मासद्विमासजाताश्चाल्पजा वत्सा वत्सिकाश्च).² These, together with the cattle that strayed away and were not claimed for a month or two by the owner who lost them (मासद्विमास पय्युषिताः), were branded, and the superintendent registered each of them according to its class as mentioned above, and also according to the brand, natural signs, colour, and distance between the horns. This duty of the superintendent was termed व्रजपर्य्यग्रम्.¹
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² *Vide* "गोध्यक्षः"।
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¹ यत्तु चित्रं वर्णं शृङ्गात्तरं च लक्षणमेवमुपजानिव्यथेदिति व्रजपर्य्यग्रम् ।—*Ibid.*
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The superintendent had also to take note of those animals that were missing (नष्ट) and also of those that were lost for good (विनष्ट). Those that were stolen, had got mixed up in the herds of others, or had disappeared in other ways, were called नष्ट. Animals were regarded as विनष्ट when they met with either natural or violent death. Thus, it was recorded whether they died of poison, disease, old age, from being buried in mire or drowned in water; whether killed by tree or stone falling upon them, struck by lightning (ईशान), or fallen a prey to tiger, snake, crocodile or forest fire.²
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² चोरहस्तमन्यूथप्रविष्टमवलीनं वा नष्टम् । पङ्क-विषम-व्याधि-जरा गोबाधारावसन्नं वृक्षतटकाशिलाभिहतमीशानव्यालसर्प-ग्राह दावानिषिपन्नं विनष्टं प्रमादादभ्याभवेयुः—*Ibid.*
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The State fixed the scale and standard of diet normally necessary to keep up the health, vigour and working capacity of all live stock.
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The following table gives particulars about the dietary of bulls that were provided with nose-strings and equalled horses in speed and carrying loads.¹
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¹ वलीवर्दानां नस्याश्वद्रमतिवाहिनां यवसस्यार्थभारः, etc.—मोऽध्यायः ।
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For the aforesaid bulls:—
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| Quantities. | Approximate modern equivalents. |
| ½ bhāra of meadow-grass (यवस) . . . . . 1½ seer. | |
| 1½ bhāra of straw (तृण) . . . . . . 3 seers. | |
| 1 tulā of oil-cakes, with cheese² if necessary to make them more palatable . . . . . . 2⅔ chataks. | |
| 10 āḍhakas of bran (कणकुण्ड) . . . . . . 12 chataks. | |
| 5 palas of salt (मुखलवण) . . . . . . 2⅔ sikis (about ½ kancha). | |
| 1 prastha of drink (पान) . . . . . . 1½ kancha. | |
| 1 tulā of मांस, i.e. fleshy part or pulp of fruits . 2⅔ chataks. | |
| 1 droṇa of barley (यव) or of cooked bean (माष) . 4½ chataks. | |
| 1 āḍhaka of curd (दधि) . . . . . . 1½ chatak. | |
| 1 droṇa of milk (क्षीर) . . . . . . 4½ chataks. | |
| ½ āḍhaka of liquor (सुरा) . . . . . . 2⅔ kanchas. | |
| 1 prastha of oil or ghee (स्नेह) . . . . . 1½ kancha. | |
| 10 palas of molasses (क्षार) . . . . . . 4½ sikis. | |
| 1 pala of ginger (अद्रिवेर) may be substituted for drink (पान) . . . . . . . . . ½ or about ½ siki. | |
| 1 kuḍumba of oil for rubbing over the nose (तैलकु-डुम्बोनखं) . . . . . . . . . 1½ siki.³ | |
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² किसाटो—(cheese)—घाषपिण्याक—(oil-cakes)—कोदार्थ—Ibid.
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³ The above measurements have been made on the basis of गुञ्ज (gunja) seed or two माष's (māshas) being taken as the unit of calculation, equivalent to 1 7/8 grains (Troy). See the chapter
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The same quantities of the above commodities less by one-quarter formed the food of mules, cows and asses; and twice the above quantities were given to buffaloes and camels. The quantities fixed above, however, could be varied to suit the needs of particular occasions. For example, the rations allowed to oxen kept to work were proportioned to the length of time they were worked, and in the case of cows that were milked, an increase was made in the amount of food.¹ The main items of food were of course water and straw, which were always given in plenty to all cattle,² while whey (उदश्वित्) was given to pigs and dogs.³
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¹ पादोनमश्वतरमृखराणां, द्विगुणं महिषोष्ट्राणां कर्मकरबळीवर्दानां, पायनाथानां च धेनुनां, कर्मकालतः पायतश्च विधा-दाजम् ।
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² सर्वेषां ह्य्ोदकप्रकाम्यमिति सोमध्यक्ष व्याख्यातम् ।
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³ उदश्वित् सूकराश्वभ्यो दद्युः ।
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There were various rules regarding the milking of cattle and the standard of dairy produce of all kinds. The milkers had to milk
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entitled तुलामानपौलवम् (Bk. II), which describes the weights and measures then in vogue. The measurements given therein coincide in the main with those arrived at independently from other Sanskrit works by Monier Williams in his famous Dictionary.
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the cattle once or twice a day according to the seasons. Thus, in the rainy and autumnal seasons and in the first part of winter (हेमन्त), they had to milk both in the morning and in the evening, while in the other seasons, only once in the day; and if anyone violated this rule and milked a second time, he was visited with the cruel penalty of having his thumb cut off. They had to milk at stated hours and make good any loss caused by neglect of this rule.¹
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¹ वर्षाशरद्धेमन्तानुभवतः कालं दद्युः । शिशिरवसन्तग्रीष्मेष्वेककालम् । द्वितीयकालमदोग्धुरङ्गुष्ठच्छेदो दण्डः ।—दोहकालमति-क्रामतस्तत्फलहानं दण्डः ।—(गोध्यक्षः) ।
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The churners had generally to conform to certain fixed proportions in regard to the preparations of milk. Thus, it was fixed that 1 prastha, i.e. 1½ kancha, of ghee would be produced from 1 droṇa, i.e. 4½ chataks, of cow’s milk, one-fifth as much more from the same quantity of buffalo milk, and one-half as much more from the same quantity of milk of a goat or sheep. Where any variation of the above proportions occurred, as it must occur through a change in the quantity and quality of the food given to cattle, the exact quantity of ghee was ascertained by actual churning, and was fixed as the modified standard to which churners had to conform.¹
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¹ क्षीरद्रोणे गवां घृतप्रस्थः । पञ्चभागाधिको महिष्याणां । द्विभागाधिकोऽजावीनां । सव्यो वा सर्वेषां प्रमाणं भूमिष्टोदकविशेषानि क्षीरघृतदधिभवति ।—(मोऽध्यक्षः) ।
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Besides the rules relating to the yield of living cattle, there were also rules regarding that of the dead. In case of the natural death of a cow or a buffalo, the herdsmen had to surrender the skin with the branded mark. The same rule applied to the cases of goat, sheep, ass, camel, etc. The herdsmen had also to give up the fat, bile, marrow, teeth, hoofs, horns and bones of the dead animals.²
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² कारवमतस्याङ्कचर्म गोमहिषस्य कर्षलक्षणमजाविकानाम् पुच्छमङ्कचर्म चाश्वखरोष्ट्राणां बालचर्म-वस्ति-पित्त-स्नायुदन्तखुर-शृङ्गास्थीनि चापरेयुः ।—*Ibid*.
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Again, animals like goats and sheep were shorn every six months, and their wool (ऊर्णा) was made over to the superintendent.³
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³ अजादीनां षाण्मासिकीमूर्णां ग्राहयेत । तेनाश्वखरोष्ट्राह-प्रजा व्याख्याताः ।—*Ibid*.
Medical Treatment of Cattle
c6.s1.1
It was also the duty of herdsmen to apply medicines to diseased animals. The due discharge of this important duty was secured by a healthy rule providing that when, owing to defects in medicine or carelessness in the treatment, the disease of an animal became serious, a fine of twice the cost of the treatment should be imposed; and when, owing to defects in the nature of the medicine itself, the animal died, a fine equal to the value of the animal was imposed.¹
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¹ वालहृदव्याधितानां गोपाल्काः प्रतिकुर्यः ।—*Ibid.* क्रिया भैषज्यसङ्गेन व्याधिवृद्धौ प्रतीकारद्विगुणो दण्डः । तदवरोधेन वैगुण्य पचमूलं दण्डः । तेन भेषजं खरोष्ट्रमहिषमजाविकं च व्याख्यातम् ।—Bk. II, अध्यायः, p. 135.
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Lastly, there were several humane regulations to prevent the cruel treatment of animals. There was a fine of 1 or 2 paṇas² by which causing pain with sticks, etc., to minor quadrupeds was punished. This fine was doubled when the beating caused the animal to bleed. In the case of larger quadrupeds the above rates were doubled, and, in addition, an adequate compensation was demanded to cover the expense of curing the beasts.³
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² A paṇa is a weight of copper used as a coin = 20 mâshas = 4 kâkinis.—Monier Williams.
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³ क्षुद्रपशूनां काष्ठादिभिर्दुःखोत्पादने पणो द्विपणो वा दण्डः । शोणितोत्पादने द्विगुणः । महापशूनामेतेष्वेव स्थानेषु द्विगुणो दण्डः, समुत्थानव्ययम् ।—Bk. III, दण्डपारुष्यम्, p. 197.
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We find it laid down that cattle such as a calf, bull or milch cow must not be slaughtered. A fine was imposed on those who slaughtered or tortured the animals to death.¹
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¹ वत्सो वृषो धेनुश्चामवध्याः । घातः पञ्चाशत्को दण्डः । क्लिष्टघातं घातयतश्च ।—Bk. II, सूनाध्यक्षः, p. 122.
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We have seen already how the diet of cattle was regulated. We shall now see what arrangement was made for grazing them on pastures. For opening, preserving and improving the grazing grounds, a separate superintendent, called विवीताध्यक्ष, was appointed. He had to observe various rules regarding the working of his department. We find it distinctly laid down that the same forest could not be used as pasture for the cattle of neighbouring villages and towns throughout the whole year. Particular forests were assigned to particular seasons (ऋतुविभक्तमरण्याम्). Thus a system of rotation was introduced by which the pastures were kept up unimpaired, with their resources unexhausted by continuous use.² Pastures were generally opened in forests, in uncultivated tracts, and in intermediate areas between places infested by wild animals, thus promoting at the same time the reclamation of waste lands.¹ There were thus several pastures in a locality, and it was the business of the herdsman to see which of them would suit the cattle under his charge. He was naturally guided by two considerations, viz. the physical strength of his cattle and the degree of protection from danger available either from persons or from the security of the place.²
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² लुब्धकश्वभिरपालं क्षेत्रपालपरवाधभयमृतुविभक्तमरण्याम् चारयेयुः—Bk. II, गोध्यक्षः ।
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¹ अरण्ययां भूमौ पशुभ्यो विवीतानि प्रयच्छेत् । (Bk. II, भूमि-च्छिद्रविधानम्, p. 49); भयान्तरेषु च विवीतं स्थापयेत् । (Bk. II, विवीताध्यक्षः, p. 141); and चतुर्विभक्तमरण्यान् चारयेयुः (supra).
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² उपनिवेशादिष्वाभागे गोप्रचारान् वक्ष्याम्यते वा गवां रक्षा-सामर्थ्याच्च ।—Bk. II, गोऽध्यक्षः ।
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As to the kinds of animals that were allowed admission into the grazing grounds, we have information from two passages,³ the first of which mentions cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, asses, camels, horses, and mules; the second, which appears in a different context, referring to cows, horses and camels as being the animals that flourish on pastures and are the source of power to the king.
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³ (i) गोमहिषमजाविकं खरोष्ट्रहयतरान व्रजः—Bk. II, समाहर्तृसमुदयप्रस्थापनम्, p. 60.
(ii) गवाश्वरथोष्ट्राणां च व्रजः—Bk. VII, हीनशक्तिपूरणम्, p. 305.
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The safety of the cattle was one of the chief concerns of the superintendent of pastures. It was ensured by the appointment of hunters, who maintained a pack of hounds to aid them in their work of watching thieves and enemies and warding off danger from snakes, tigers, etc.¹ The hunters had recourse to the following means of calling in the aid of the king and the king’s men:—
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¹ चोर-व्यालभयाटवीकानि शोधयेत् । लुब्धकश्वगणिनः परि-व्रजेयुस्तत्रकानि—Bk. II, विवीताध्यक्षः, p. 141. लुब्धकश्वगणिनिभिरपास्त स्तेन-व्यालपरबाधभयमृतुविभक्तमरण्यान चारयेयुः—Bk. II, गोऽध्यक्षः (also quoted supra).
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(i) Blowing conch-shells and beating drums (शङ्खदुन्दुभिस्वनम्).
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(ii) Remaining concealed amid trees and mountains, and afterwards sending the information (शैलवृक्ष-विरुदाः).
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(iii) Riding away on swift horses, etc. (शीघ्रवाहनाः).
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(iv) Flying carrier pigeons belonging to the king’s household, with royal passports attached to them (राज्ञः मुद्रायुक्तैः मद्रकपोतैः).
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(v) Announcing danger by a succession of beacon fires (धुमाग्निपरम्परया).¹
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¹ सत्वरामिषाभ्यागमे शङ्खदुन्दुभिरवमप्रायाः कुर्युः । शेलहच-विरूढा वा, शीघ्रवाहना वा, शमिचाडवीसहचरं च राज्ञोष्ट्रक-पोतैमंड्रायुधैर्हारयेयुः, धूमाग्निपरम्परया वा ।—Bk. II, विवी-ताध्यक्षः, p. 141.
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Besides these general precautions that had to be adopted by the superintendent of pastures, the duty of taking special protective measures was thrown on the herdsmen themselves. They had to attach bells or other sounding instruments to the necks of timid animals. These served the double purpose of scaring away snakes and other undesirables and of helping the herdsmen to easily find out, by following the direction of the sound, the animals that went astray.² When the cattle required watering and bathing, their safety was secured by leading them only to those streams and ponds which were marked out as being free from mire (चकर्दम) and crocodiles (अपाय), and the approaches to which were gradually sloped instead of being abrupt and steep (समबूडतीर्थ).³
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² सर्पव्यालत्रासनार्थं गोचरानुपातज्ञानार्थं च पशूनां घण्टास्तूर्य्यं च बध्नीयुः ।—Bk. II, गोध्यक्षः ।
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³ समबूडतीर्थमकर्दमापमृदकमवतारयेयुः पालययेयुश्च—Ibid.
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Another direction for the guidance of the herdsmen was that they should divide the cattle, while grazing, into groups of ten according to colour, the object being to avoid confusion between herds and to facilitate the herdsman's work of singling out his herd after grazing.¹ The cowherds were strictly prohibited from allowing the bulls under their charge to fight in the grazing grounds, and were fined for violating the rule.²
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¹ वर्षावरोधेन दशवर्गाणां रक्षणं करणीयम् ।—*Ibid.*
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² यूथपः वृषेणावपातयतः पूर्वः साहसदण्डः घातयतः उत्तमः । (पूर्वसाहसदण्ड—a fine ranging from 48 to 96 paṇas)—गोऽध्यक्षः ।
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There were also a few rules applying to losses of cattle by theft or otherwise. If any animal were stolen, or killed by snakes, etc., or died through old age or disease, the herdsmen had to report it forthwith to the superintendent of cows; otherwise, they had to pay as penalty the price (रूपमूल्य) of the animal lost.³ If an animal belonging to the flocks under गोऽध्यक्षः were killed or stolen, the crime was visited with capital punishment; but if it were replaced by another, only a fine was inflicted. Rewards were also given to those who recovered the stolen cattle from thieves.¹
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³ स्तेनव्यालसर्प-व्याघ्र-मृगीतं व्याधिजरावसन्नं च आवेदयेयुः । अन्यथा रूपमूल्यं भजेरन् ।—*Ibid.*
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¹ स्वयं हन्ता घातयिता हर्ता हारयिता च वध्यः । परराष्ट्रगां राजाज्ञेन परिवर्तयिता रूपस्य एकस्य पूर्वं साहसदण्डं दद्यात् । स्वदेशीयानां चोरहृतं प्रत्यानीय पवित्रं रूपं हरेत् । परदेशीयानां मोचयिताऽर्थं हरेत् — *Ibid.*
Linked texts (1)
- Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit