Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthashastra of Kautilya), Vol. I c7.s3: The Superintendent of Horses

Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya), Vol. I c7.s3

Language: English

c7.s3.t1 Registration and classification — 19 parts
c7.s3.t2 Stables — 7 parts
c7.s3.t3 Rations — 8 parts
c7.s3.t4 Training given to horses — 9 parts
c7.s3.t5 Medical treatment of horses — 2 parts
c7.s3.t6 A few other rules — 12 parts

The Superintendent of Horses

c7.s3.1

The superintendent of horses had manifold duties to perform, viz. : (1) to keep a register of horses ; (2) to classify them according to breed, age, colour, marks, size, etc. ; (3) to provide for their stabling ; (4) to determine their rations ; (5) to break and train them according to their mettle ; (6) to provide for their medical treatment by veterinary surgeons ; and (7) to arrange for the taking of proper care of them in other ways, as detailed below.

Registration and classification

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Horses were registered not only according to their natural qualities, but also in several artificial but convenient ways. Thus, horses were regarded as belonging to the three classes or types of तीक्ष्ण (fiery), भद्र (gentle) and मन्द (sluggish).¹ They were also classified according to the places of their origin. Among these have been mentioned the following places, some of which have been identified:—

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¹ तेषां तीक्ष्णममन्दत्वेन साक्षात्मीपवाचकं वा कथं प्रयो-जयेत् ।—Bk. II, यथाधः, p. 188.

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(1) काम्बोज (Kâmbhôja), (2) सिन्धु (Sindhu), (3) आरट्ट (Âraṭṭa), (4) बनायु (Banâyu), (5) बाह्लीक (Bâlhîka), (6) सौवीर (Sauvîra), (7) पापेय (Pâpeya), (8) तैतल (Taitala).²

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² प्रयोगमात्रासुतमाः काम्बोजकसैन्धवारट्टबनायुजाः । मध्यमा बाह्लीक-पापेयक-सौवीरक-तैतलाः । एषाः प्रत्यवराः ।—Ibid.

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Identifications:—
(1) काम्बोज — Afghanistan: Kaofu (Kambu) of Hiuen Tsiang. (N. L. Dey's Geographical Dictionary.)
(2) सिन्धु — Sindh.
(3) आरट्ट — Punjab, land of the Arâshtrakas, i.e. the kingless. (Cunningham's Geography of Ancient India, p. 215.)
(4) बनायु — Arabia. (वाचस्पत्यम् of T. N. Tarkavachaspati.)
(5) बाह्लीक — Balkh in Central Asia. (Monier Williams.)
(6) सौवीर — or Sophir of the Bible; according to Cunningham, the same as the modern Eder in Guzerat. (Geogr. of Anc. Ind., p. 497.)

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It is interesting to note that almost all the places mentioned above appear in the following sloka of the Râmâyaṇa:—

c7.s3.t1.7

काम्बोजविषये जातेर्बाह्लीकेषु तथोत्तमैः ।
बनायुजेष्वदीजेषु पूर्वं हरि हयोत्तमेः ।

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—Bâlakâṇḍa, Sarga 6, sloka 22.

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नदीजा: in the sloka = सिन्धुनदी समीपोद्भवा: । (Râmânuja.)

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Of these places the first four were held to supply the best breed of horses, and the remaining four, horses of the second quality. Horses of inferior quality came from other places. Thirdly, there was another method used to classify horses, viz. by the way in which horses were procured. According to this method, horses could be of the following descriptions :—

c7.s3.t1.11

(1) पण्यमारिकं (brought to the sale-house for sale); (2) क्रयोपगतम् (recently purchased); (3) आहवलब्धम् (captured in war); (4) आजातम (of local breed); (5) साहाय्यकागतम् (sent for help as loan); (6) वनस्त्रातं (wild and fresh from forest); (7) यावतकालिकं (kept in the stable only for a while).¹

c7.s3.t1.12

¹ अथाश्वः पण्यमारिकं क्रयोपगतमाहवलब्धमाजातं साहाय्य-कागतं वनस्त्रातं यावतकालिकं वाऽप्यप्यं कुतश्चयोपवर्षिष्ठ-वर्गामसेर्लभेयेत् ।—(अथाश्वः) ।

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*A method of testing horses.*

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The mettle of a horse was inferred from certain measurements of parts of its body as explained below :—

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The face (मुख) of the best horse measures 32 angulas.

c7.s3.t1.16

Its length (आयाम), five times its face = 160 angulas. Its shank (जङ्घा), 20 angulas. Its height (उत्तसेध), four times its shank = 80 angulas.

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A defect of 3 angulas must be allowed in the above measurements in respect of horses of the second quality, and of 6 angulas in respect of inferior qualities.

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The girth (परिणाह) of the best horse is 100 angulas; of horses of second quality, 95 angulas; of horses of lowest quality, 90 angulas.¹

c7.s3.t1.19

¹ द्वात्रिंशदङ्गुलं मुखमुत्तमाश्वस्य, पञ्चमुखाभ्यायामः, विंशत्यङ्गुल जङ्घा, चतुर्जङ्ग उत्सेधः, त्र्यङ्गावरं मध्यमावरयोः, शताङ्गुलः परिणाहः, पञ्चमात्रावरं मध्यमावरयोः।—*Ibid.*

Stables

c7.s3.t2.1

The provision of suitable stables was one of the chief duties of the superintendent. This is also hinted at by Megasthenes.²

c7.s3.t2.2

² "There are royal stables for the horses and elephants . . ."—Bk. III, Fragment xxxiv.

c7.s3.t2.3

The size of each stable was of course determined by the number of horses to be kept therein. The length of each room of the stable was to be double the length of a horse. It had four doors on the four sides, and an open space in the middle where horses could roll themselves.

c7.s3.t2.4

The breadth of the apartment for each horse was to be four times the width of the horse, and its floor was to be paved with smooth wooden planks (श्लक्ष्णफलकास्तारं). It must have a trough for food (अखादनकोष्ठकं), and be provided with apertures for the removal of excreta. The rooms should face preferably the north and the east. Horses, mares and colts had separate compartments.

c7.s3.t2.5

There were spacious corridors (सप्रमीवां) in the stable provided with doors, and there were seats and pegs (आसन-पञ्जर) for monkeys, peacocks, spotted deer (पृषत), mungooses (नकुल), partridges (चकोर), parrots (शुक) and mainâs (शारिका).¹ The object of keeping these animals in the stable becomes apparent from a passage in Bk. I, जिज्ञासाप्रविधिः, which runs as follows: “Cats (मार्जार), peacocks (मयूर), mungooses (नकुल) and spotted deer destroy snakes; parrots (शुक), mainâs (सारिका) or fork-tailed shrikes (भृगराज) shriek out when they smell poison; ospreys (क्रौञ्च) get excited in the vicinity of poison, pheasants (जीवञ्जीवक) feel distressed, cuckoos (मत्तकोकिल) die, and partridges (चकोर) redden their eyes.”¹ It may be noted in this connexion that the practice of keeping monkeys in stables in the belief that horses keep good health in their company, still obtains.

c7.s3.t2.6

¹ अश्वविभवेनायतामश्वानां द्विगुणविस्तारां चतुर्द्वारोपावर्त्त-ममथां सप्रमीवां प्रहारासनफलकयुक्तां वानर-मयूर-पृषत-नकुल-चकोर-शुक-शारिकाभिराकीर्णां शालां निवेशयेत् । अश्वानां चतुरश्रश्लक्ष्णफलकास्तारं सखादनकोष्ठकं समूत्र-पुरीषोत्सर्गमेकैकशः प्राङ्मुखमुदङ्मुखं वा स्थानं निवेशयेत् । शालावसेन वा दिग्विभागं कल्पयेत् । वडवावत्सकिशोराणां एकान्तेषु ।—(अथाश्वः)।

c7.s3.t2.7

¹ मार्जारमयूरनकुलशशतोत्सर्मासर्पान् भक्षयन्ति । शुकसारिका भृगराजो वा सर्पविषसङ्घायां क्रोशति । क्रौञ्चो विषाभ्याशे माद्यति । म्रियति जीवञ्जीवकः । म्रियते मत्तकोकिलः । चकोरस्याक्षिणी विरज्यते ।—Bk. I, जिज्ञासाप्रविधिः, p. 40.

Rations

c7.s3.t3.1

The superintendent regulated the rations of the horses under his charge in the following ways:—

c7.s3.t3.2

For the best horse:—

c7.s3.t3.3

| Quantities. | Modern equivalents. |
| 2 droṇas (द्रोण) of any one of these grains, viz. शालि, व्रीहि (rice), barley (यव), panic-seed or mustard-seed (प्रियङ्गु) half-dried or half-cooked, or boiled मुद्ग or माष (kinds of pulse) . . . . . | 9⅜ chataks. |

c7.s3.t3.4

c7.s3.t3.5

Those horses that were tired by long journey or by carrying loads were given 1 prastha of oil or ghee more for perfuming their food (अनुवासन), 1 kuḍumba (1½ siki) of oil or ghee for rubbing over the nose, ½ bhāra (भार), i.e. 1½ seer, of meadow-grass (यवस), twice as much of straw (तृण) and hay for a bedding of 6 aratins (12 ft.) or as much straw as can be held within the arms (षडरतिः परिक्षेपः पुंजीकृतो वा हस्त भुजद्वयपरिष्वंगपाशः).

c7.s3.t3.6

The same quantity of rations less by one-quarter was given to horses of medium and inferior quality. A draught horse or stallion of medium size was given the same quantity as the best horse, and draught horses of lower size the same quantity as a horse of medium quality.

c7.s3.t3.7

Mares and mules (परममश्) were given onequarter less of rations. A mare that had just given birth to a colt was given 1 prastha or 1½ kancha of ghee for the first three days; then for the next ten days, 1 prastha, i.e. 1½ kancha, of सक्तु (i.e. pounded gram, etc.), and oil or ghee mixed with medicine. Afterwards, she was given युषाक (boiled rice), यवस (meadow-grass), and other things suited to the season.

c7.s3.t3.8

Half the rations of mares was generally given to colts; but a colt of ten days was fed on ¼ kuḍumba (¼ siki) of ghee, 1 kuḍumba (1½ siki) of सक्तु and 1 prastha (1½ kancha) of milk till it was six months old. Gradually, the above rations were increased half as much during each succeeding month, with the addition of 1 prastha of barley, till it became three years old. It was given 1 droṇa (4½ chataks) of barley until four years of age, when it became fully developed and serviceable.

Training given to horses

c7.s3.t4.1

Horses were employed for the purposes of war or for ordinary purposes, according to their mettle. They were therefore trained not only for ordinary work of the State in times of peace (चौपवाद्यकं), but also for the more difficult movements required in war (वधायम्). The latter movements were of the following kinds:—

c7.s3.t4.2

(i) वलय (circular movement):—(a) वीपवेष्टक (turning in a circle with a diameter = 1 cubit); (b) वर्धमानक (advancing, and yet turning in a circle as above); (c) यमक (running the figure-of-eight); (d) लालीप्लुत (running and jumping simultaneously); (e) हयग (movement of only the forepart of the body); (f) द्वपादी (movement of only the hinder portion of the body).

c7.s3.t4.3

(ii) नीचैर्गत (slow movement with the head and ears kept erect):—(a) प्रकीर्णक (a combination of the movements mentioned above); (b) प्रकीर्णतर (same as the previous, but with one kind of movement kept prominent); (c) निषध (a movement in which the hinder part of the body is kept steady); (d) पार्श्वाणुगत (movement sideways); (e) ऊर्मिमागं (movement up and down like a wave); (f) मृगक्रीडित (playing like a मृग, a kind of deer); (g) मृगप्लुत (leaping like a मृग); (h) चिताज (a movement using only three legs); (i) वामानुवृत्त (moving right and left); (j) पञ्चपादि (movement by using two and three legs alternately); (k) सिंहावत (pacing like a lion); (l) लाघुत (long strides); (m) ऋजु (moving straight without a rider); (n) नमित (moving with the forepart of the body bent); (o) नृत्त (moving with the hinder part of the body bent); (p) पुलामिकीर्ण (zig-zag motion).

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(iii) प्लुत (jumping):—(a) कपिप्लुत (jumping like a monkey); (b) भेकप्लुत (jumping like a frog); (c) प्लुत (sudden jump); (d) एकपादप्लुत (jumping with one leg); (e) कोकिलसंचारि (leaping like a cuckoo); (f) उरग (dashing with the breast almost touching the ground); (g) बकचारी (leaping like a crane).

c7.s3.t4.5

(iv) धोरण (gallop):—(a) काक (imitating the flight of a heron); (b) वारिकाक (dashing like a water-duck); (c) मयूर (running like a peacock); (d) अर्धमयूर (half the speed of a peacock); (e) नकुल (dashing like a mungoose); (f) अर्ध-नकुल (half the speed of a mungoose); (g) वाराह (running like a boar); (h) अर्धवाराह (half the speed of a boar).

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(v) नारीइ is संज्ञाप्रतिकार, i.e. response to signals.

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Over and above these a few kinds of trot are enumerated as follows:—

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(1) धाव:—(a) विक्रम (trotting according to strength); (b) महाधाव (trotting with good breathing); (c) भारवाह (trotting with a load on the back). (2) धारा :—(a) विक्रम (pacing according to strength); (b) वल्गन (pacing with circular movement); (c) उपकण्ठ (pacing with gallops); (d) उपजव (middle speed); (e) जव (low speed).¹

c7.s3.t4.9

¹ The explanation of the above technical terms has been taken mostly from the Commentary of Bhaṭṭasvāmi.

Medical treatment of horses

c7.s3.t5.1

The superintendent had to report to the king the number of horses that were diseased or had defective limbs (अश्वान्याङ्गबाधितांश्चावेदयेत्), and put them under the treatment of veterinary surgeons, whose duty was not only to treat the diseases of horses, but also to see that all parts of their body were harmoniously developing. They gave advice to the superintendent regarding the change of diet of the horses to suit particular seasons. They were fined if the diseases were aggravated or took a bad turn, and had to make good the loss if a horse died through defective treatment.²

c7.s3.t5.2

² अश्वानां चिकित्सकः शरीरस्याङ्गप्रतीकारमृजुविभक्तम् चाहारम् (प्रतिदिशेयुः)—(अश्वाश्वः)। क्रियामैवस्येन बाधिबुद्धी प्रतीकारद्विगुणो दण्डः। तदपराधेन वैद्योऽपि पञ्चमुकं दण्डः।—*Ibid.*

A few other rules

c7.s3.t6.1

As regards the distances to be traversed by draught horses, the rule was that they should run six, nine, and twelve yojanas¹ according to their quality. Five, eight, and ten yojanas were the maximum limits of distance for riding horses.

c7.s3.t6.2

¹ A yojana = 6 1/2 miles. षड्व द्वादशेति योजनान्यध्वा रथानां, पञ्चयोजनान्यध्वा- मानि द्वादशेति पृष्ठवाहानां व्यासाधवा ।—(अध्याधः) ।

c7.s3.t6.3

Horses disabled by disease, age or war and rendered unfit for active service were relieved from all work.²

c7.s3.t6.4

² युद्धवाजिजराकर्मजीवाः पिण्डोपचारिकाः सुरसमप्रयोक्त्राः । पौरजानपदानाम् अर्धेन वृषा वड़वाश्च आजीव्याः ।—*Ibid.*

c7.s3.t6.5

The grooms (अश्वपालक), those who bound them in stables (अश्वबन्धक), supplied meadow-grass (घासघसः), prepared the meals of horses (विषापाक), watched the stables (अश्वपालक), dressed their hair (केशकार), and detected poison (जाङ्गुलीवित्) were liable to a fine of a day’s wages for neglect of duty.³ The जाङ्गुलीविदः were the grooms, cooks and veterinary surgeons, for it was they who had to taste the food of the horses.¹ The attendants of horses were enjoined to make a careful use of what they brought from the treasury or the storehouse for purposes of the stables, so as to prevent waste.² There were expert ropemakers for making ropes for horses; while the manufacture of accoutrements was the work of the chariot-makers (सूतः).³

c7.s3.t6.6

³ कर्मानतिक्रमे तेषां दिवसवेतनच्छेदं कुर्यात् ।—*Ibid.*

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¹ विधापाचक अश्वपाचक चिकित्सकः प्रतिसादभाजः।—*Ibid.*

c7.s3.t6.8

² कोशकोष्ठागाराभ्याम् च मषीला मासजाभम् अश्ववाद्यश्चित्-येत्।—*Ibid.*

c7.s3.t6.9

³ तेषां यत्रोपकरणं योक्त्राचार्याः प्रतिदिशेयुः। सांनाहिकं रथावाद्यङ्कारं च सूताः।—*Ibid.*

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*Ceremonies observed for the welfare of horses.*

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In conclusion, it should be remarked that horses were accorded an almost human treatment, which indicates the great value attached to them. Besides the rules prescribed by experience and science to secure the health and well-being of horses, there were certain religious ceremonies observed to influence unseen forces in their favour. The horses were regularly washed, bedaubed with sandal, and even garlanded twice a day. On new-moon days, the sacrifice to *Bhūtas* was performed; and on full-moon days, auspicious hymns were chanted. On the ninth day of the month of Âsvin, and also at the beginning and end of journeys, the priest invoked blessings on horses by performing the ceremony of आरति, or the waving of lights.¹

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¹ हिरण्यस्नानमश्वानां मज्जनं च दापयेत् अश्वयुग्मेषु भूतेभ्यः पूजेषु स्वस्तिवाचनम् । नीराजनमथाश्वेषु कारयेद्यत्नतोऽहनि यात्रायावसाने वा यावी वा शान्तिके रतः ।—*Ibid.*

Linked texts (3)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Ἰνδική — Λούκιος Φλάουιος Ἀρριανός, Ancient Greek
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit