Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthashastra of Kautilya), Vol. I c9.s1: § 1.—Land Routes and Conveyances

Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya), Vol. I c9.s1

Language: English

§ 1.—Land Routes and Conveyances

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CONSIDERING the vast extent of the empire of Chandra Gupta, embracing as it did the whole of Northern India from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea, an area wider even than that of British India, it is evident that the machinery of government by which the administration of this mighty empire was carried on was highly elaborate and developed, the product of evolution through centuries. It implied the existence of all the principal factors on which depends the efficiency of such governments, viz., a well-disciplined army of sufficient strength, a well-organized system of administration, and a well-developed system of communication by which the heart of the empire was brought into constant and vital connexion with its distant and various parts. We shall have occasion to speak in another place of the organization of Chandra Gupta’s army and administration. In the present chapter we shall confine ourselves to an account of the means of communication that existed in Chandra Gupta’s time, the network of roads, trade routes and water routes, etc., that, radiating from the centre at Pāṭaliputra towards the four quarters of the empire, covered up the entire territory embraced by it. Among the principal agencies of transport, we shall have to refer to vehicles and conveyances as also to ships and boats which established and carried on the intercourse not only between the different parts of the country along the recognized water routes, but also the intercourse of the empire with the outside world across the seas.

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As already pointed out, the trade routes led towards all the four quarters of the empire—north, south, east and west, as is apparent from the passages quoted below. The number of routes in each direction seems to have been determined by consideration of traffic. From this standpoint Kauṭilya regards the routes leading to the south as more important than those leading to the Himâlayas; for while the latter brought to market the supply of blankets, skins and horses, the former facilitated the supply of such valuable commodities as diamonds and other precious stones, pearls, gold and conch-shells, of which Southern India was the noted home for ages. On the same considerations it is also stated that of the southern trade routes the more important were those that passed by a larger number of mines, carried a larger volume of traffic in merchandise of various kinds, and were hence used by a larger number of men. There were also other routes leading to the east and to the west, the importance of which was also determined as above.¹

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¹ स्थलपथेऽपि—“हैमवतो दक्षिणपथाच्छ्रेयान् हस्त्यश्व-गन्ध-दन्त-जिन-रूप्य-सुवर्ण-पण्यासारवत्तराः”—(इत्याचार्याः)। नेति कौटिल्यः—“कम्बलजिनखुरपण्याः प्रभूतरमपि सुवर्णरत्नपण्याश्च प्रभूततरा दक्षिणपथे। दक्षिणपथेऽपि वङ्ग-वङ्गिसारपण्याः प्रसिद्धतरूप-बाहामो वा वणिक्पथः। येषाम्। प्रभूतविभवो वा पणुपथः। तेन पूर्वः पश्चिमश्च वणिक्पथो व्याख्यातः।”—Bk. VII, कर्मसन्धिः, p. 298.

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One of these routes was undoubtedly what has been mentioned in Megasthenes as the “Royal Road ”² connecting Pâṭaliputra with the Indus valley, and enabling the power of Chandra Gupta to be felt even in the regions of the North-Western frontiers which had been newly wrested from the hands of Seleucus Nikator.

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² Megasthenes, Bk. IV, Fragment lvi.

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But roads and trade routes¹ had a political importance besides an economic. To have control over them meant over-reaching the enemy. They were the means of transport of troops, messengers, envoys, as well as weapons, armour, chariots, pack-animals, etc.

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¹ वणिक्पथः परातिसभाश्च योनयः ; वणिक्पथेन हि दण्डगूढपुरषातिनयनं मज्ञावरखयानवाहनक्रयश्च क्रियते । प्रवेशो निर्गमनं च ।—Bk. VII, सीमप्रतिपूरणम्, p. 305; सप्रतिविहित यानवाहनपुरुषपरिवापः प्रतिषेध, etc.—Bk. I, दूतप्रणिधिः, p. 30.

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Roads and trade routes were of various kinds, with various designations. They were classified (1) according as they were used by beasts of burden, men on foot or in conveyances, and (2) according to the destinations they led to. Thus, the राजमार्ग² (4 daṇḍas or 32 feet wide) was the king’s highway. It owed its name evidently to the fact that the king used it on solemn occasions, when it was cleared of crowds and guarded by soldiers with drawn swords. There used to be six such roads in a city, three running north and south and three east and west. रथ्या was the broad road, 4 daṇḍas or 32 feet wide, along which chariots could run with ease. There is also mention of a रथपथ, apparently for smaller chariots, as it was only 5 aratnis or 10 feet wide. The पशुपथ, having a width of 4 aratnis or 8 feet, was the road for cattle in general, while there were the महापशुपथ for the larger animals, and the क्षुद्रपशुपथ for the smaller ones, having a width of 2 aratnis or 4 feet.¹ There were routes called खरोष्ट्रपथ (lit., for asses and camels). They were so made that they could be used whatever the season or the nature of the soil through which they passed. Besides the aforesaid roads, there was also distinguished a चक्रपथ (cart-track) which admitted of a larger volume of traffic than the पादपथ, and the मनुष्यपथ (2 aratnis or 4 feet wide) meant for pedestrians only. The वंसपथ was a narrow road of the latter class.¹ Of these roads and routes some have been singled out in the Arthaśāstra as trade routes proper (वणिकपथ). These are the चक्रपथ, पादपथ, वंसपथ and खरोष्ट्रपथ. The reason of this distinction seems to be that the trade routes were usually of very great length and passed through a variety of soils and climes.

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² निर्व्यूहभिधाने च राजमार्गमुभयतः चतारचं दण्डिभिरपात्त-मजपथाप्रविशितपथं भवेत् । न पुरषसम्बाधमवगाहेत ।—Bk. I, आत्मारक्षितकम्, p. 45; अथः प्राचीना राजमार्गाश्च उदीचीना इति वास्तुविभागः ।—Bk. II, दुर्गनिवेशः, p. 54.

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¹ It should be noted that these roads took their names from the principal uses for which they were meant. It must not be thought that a road for the purpose which its name implies was not put to any other use for which it was fit.

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¹ दुर्गनिवेश:—Bk. II; विवीतक्षेत्रपथविभं—Bk. III; and वणिकपथ—Bk. VII; तथापि चक्रपादपथयोश्चक्रपथो विपुलतरत्वाच्छ्रेयान देशकालसभावतो वा खरोष्ट्रपथ: पाभ्याम् वंसपथो व्याख्यात:—Bk. VII, कार्यसन्धि: ।

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As has been already mentioned, there was also a class of roads that were designated according to their destinations. The राष्ट्रपथ (4 daṇḍas or 32 feet wide) was the road leading to the districts. The road leading to pastures was known as विवीतपथ, and was of the same breadth. The approaches to the forts in the centre of 400 and 800 villages were known respectively as द्रोणमुखपथ and स्थानीयपथ, and were of equal breadth with the preceding.² The क्षेत्रपथ led to the fields under cultivation (बीजपथ = seed or grain). The road leading to a military station was called the व्यूहपथ. The श्मशानपथ, as the name indicates, led to the cremation-grounds, while the ग्रामपथ was a thoroughfare which led to and through a village. The above four classes of roads were all 8 daṇḍas or 64 feet wide. The paths to forests were known as वनपथ (4 daṇḍas or 32 feet wide), and those leading to elephant forests were called हस्तिपथ (2 daṇḍas or 16 feet wide). The roads leading to or passing over elevated and difficult places like embankments were designated as सेतुपथ (4 daṇḍas or 32 feet wide).¹

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² अष्टशतग्राममध्ये स्थानीयम्, चतु:शतग्राममध्ये द्रोणमुखम्, हिमवन्ताभ्याम् खार्बटिकम्, श्मशानमीपदेव सङ्ग्रहणम् खापयेत् । —Bk. II, जनपदनिवेश: ।

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¹ दुर्गनिवेश:—Bk. II.

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Besides the above classes, there are mentioned a few other roads peculiar to forts²:—

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² दुर्गविधानम्—Bk. II.

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(i) रथचर्यापथ, *i.e.* roads for chariots, paved with planks cut from the trunks of palms, or with broad and thick slabs of stones. (ii) प्रतौली, which was a broad passage between two towers (अट्टालक). (iii) देवपथ, which was the passage leading to a temple. (iv) Paths which were as broad as a daṇḍa (8 feet) or two and were called चर्या.

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Among other minor roads may be mentioned the खम, a defile or small path admitting passage for a single man.¹ उपाथ is a small passage through fields,² etc., and विथिका³ a road in the city on which the workshop for the State goldsmith was built.

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¹ श्मशानप्रविशपथः, वीवधासारप्रसारपथ—Bk. XII, p. 388.

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² वासुविक्रयः—Bk. III, p. 169.

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³ अवशालायां सुवर्णाध्यक्षः—Bk. II, p. 85.

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The free flow of traffic along the established roads and trade routes was naturally one of the cares of the State, and all interference with it was punishable. Suitable fines were imposed for blocking passage, which varied with the importance of the roads.⁴ The fines for blocking or digging some of the roads mentioned above are thus laid down in the Arthaśāstra : for क्षुद्रपथ and मनुष्यपथ, 12 paṇas; for महापपथ, 24 paṇas; for रथपथ, 54 paṇas; for सेतुपथ and वज्रपथ, 600 paṇas; for श्मशानपथ and ग्रामपथ, 200 paṇas; for द्रोणमुखपथ, 500 paṇas; for स्थानीयपथ, राष्ट्रपथ and विवीतपथ, 1000 paṇas; for digging the roads too deep, four times the above fines were inflicted.

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⁴ विवीतक्षेत्रपथविंशा—Bk. III, p. 171.

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We now proceed to give an account of the various types of vehicles, conveyances and other means of land carriage which were then in use. First come *chariots*, the construction of which was placed under the supervision of the superintendent of chariots (रथाध्यक्ष), who had to see that the chariots built corresponded with the various sizes and types in vogue; for there are mentioned no less than seven different sizes of chariots with a normal height of 10 purushas, *i.e.* 10 feet, but with a width ranging from 6 to 12 feet. There are also mentioned six varieties of chariots for different purposes. Thus the देवरथ was the chariot for the idols, the पुष्परथ was the festal chariot, the संग्रामिक war-chariot, the पारियात्रिक that used ordinarily for travelling. There was another class of war-chariots called the परपुराभिमानिक for use in expeditions. Lastly, there was the वेणविक or the chariot used in the period of training.¹

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¹ रथाध्यक्ष:—Bk. II. ² क्षुद्रपशुमनुष्य सवारी साधनं दद्यात्; यथा लघुयानम्, षड्-गोधिरथम्, सप्त शकटम्—Bk. II, नावध्यक्ष:, p. 127.

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Among minor *vehicles*² we have the लघुयानम्, a small cart; the गोधिरथम्, a cart of medium size drawn by bulls; and the शकट or big cart.

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The carts were in very general use, and a brisk trade in them was carried on to meet the demand.¹

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¹ धान्यरसलोहपण्याः शकटव्यवहारिणश्च विंशत्कराः.—Bk. V, कोशामिसंग्रहम्, p. 241.

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The chariots, carts² and other vehicles were usually drawn by camels, bulls or horses. The cart-driver was called चक्रचर.³

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² गवाश्व-रथोष्ट्राणां च व्रजः.—Bk. VII, दीनशक्तियुरवम् । युगवाहनशकटवहा ह्यभाः.—Bk. II, गोध्यक्षः । कुर्याद्रवाश्ववा-योगं रथेवल्पस्यो नृपः.—Bk. X, युद्धभूमयः, पत्त्यश्वरथद्विपर्काश्च च, p. 369.

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³ चक्रचराणां वा शकट-वाढे-रपनयेत्.—Bk. VII, सम्भिकर्म, सम्भिसोच्य, p. 315.

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Lastly, the शिविका⁴ or palanquin was also a means of conveyance, पीठिका being another variety of the same.

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⁴ हयभृतारथजनशिविकापीठिकार्येषु च विशेषार्थम्.—Bk. II, मविकाध्यक्षः, p. 128.

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As regards the king's conveyance, great precautions were taken to ensure his personal safety when he rode a horse, etc., or was carried in a chariot or other vehicle. Hereditary grooms and drivers were generally appointed, and stringent punishments meted out to those who stole or caused hurt to royal horses and elephants, and damage to royal carriages.¹

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¹ मौजपुरवाधितं यानवाहनमारोहेत्—Bk. I, चालरक्षित-कम्; (पथि) राजहस्त्यश्वानां हिंसकान् येषां वा प्रसाधारो-इयेयुः—Bk. IV, मुद्रिवध दण्डकम्:, p. 227.

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There were rules for the driving of vehicles to ensure the security of the passers-by. I need not, however, enter into these details.² Cart-stealing was severely punished.³ Special⁴ care was taken for repairing the roads, and favour was shown to the labourers by exempting them from taxes.

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² *Vide* Bk. IV, अतिचारदण्डः ।

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³ चक्रयुक्तं यानं क्षुद्रपशुं व्यापद्यत एकपादवधः चित्रतो वा दण्डः—Bk. IV, एकाङ्गवधनिबन्धः, p. 225.

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⁴ शोधयेत् पञ्चसङ्घं चीयमानं वणिक्पथं—Bk. II, जनपद-निवेशः, p. 49; मध्यमवरं वा दुर्गसेतुबन्धवणिक्पथग्रामनिवेश-खनिद्रव्यहस्तिवनकर्मोपकारिवं प्रत्यक्षमस्यप्रमाणं वा न याचेत—Bk. V, कोशभिसंहरवम्, p. 240.

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I conclude this account of land routes and conveyances by a reference to the facilities for travelling that were offered by the State. The supply of water and shade was one of the concerns of Government. Trees were planted along the roads, and water-storages were set up, ministering to the comfort of passers-by. There was also provision made by hotelkeepers for the supply of food and resting-place to travellers.¹ These facilities anticipated those of Asoka as set forth in his Rock Edict II.

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¹ तुष्यशीलपुंश्चलीप्रापाविक-कयावकामभोजनदाहभिः उपसर्पयेत्—Bk. IV, वास्तुकर्मानुयोगः, p. 219. सहोदकं आहार्योदकं वा सेतुं बध्नीयात्। अन्येषां वा बध्नतां भूमिमार्ग-वृक्षोपकरणानुग्रहं कुर्यात् पुण्यस्थानारामाणां च सभूय सेतुबन्धात्प्रकामतः कर्मकरबलीवर्दाः कर्मकुर्युः—Bk. II, जनपदनिवेशः, p. 47; पुण्यफलवाठपवकेदारमूलवापासेतुः—Bk. II, समाहर्तृसमुदयप्रस्थापनम्, p. 60.

Linked texts (2)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Ἰνδικά — Μεγασθένης, Ancient Greek