Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthashastra of Kautilya), Vol. I c9.s2: § 2.—Waterways and Ships and Boats

Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity (Based on the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya), Vol. I c9.s2

Language
English

§ 2.—Waterways and Ships and Boats

c9.s2.1

From the above it appears that the vast territories over which Chandra Gupta held sway were interconnected by a system of communications, which was one of the chief means of welding them together into one mighty empire governed from its centre at Pāṭaliputra. The means of communication thus established had, as I have already said, not merely a political significance; they helped to create and carry a large volume of inland trade which was equally instrumental in uniting the different parts of the empire in ties of common material interests.

c9.s2.2

The system of communications, however, could not be complete without the means of water-carriage, which in India, pre-eminently the land of rivers, were imperatively necessary. That these were fairly developed is quite evident from the Arthaśāstra; in fact, all matters relating to navigation, whether inland or oceanic, were dealt with by a separate admiralty department managed by various officers.

c9.s2.3

There were several classes of water routes: first, the ordinary river routes and the artificial waterways or canals (कुल्या) which were greatly resorted to by traders on account of the undoubted cheapness of water-carriage. Kauṭilya, however, shows his preference¹ for land routes over water routes on account of the lesser risks involved in the former. Secondly, there were the routes for coastal traffic (कूलपथ)

c9.s2.4

¹ एतेन वणिक् पथोव्याख्यातः। तत्रापि—“वारिपथपथयोर्वारिपथः श्रेयान् अल्पव्ययव्यायामः प्रभूतपखोदयश्च” इत्याचार्याः। नेति कौटिल्यः—“संभङ्गुरतिरसार्वकालिकः प्रवहणवणिज्वितिकारश्च वारिपथः; विपरीतस्थलपथः। वारिपथे तु कुल्य-संधानपथयोः कुल्यपथः पण्यपतनपत्तनाक्षेपाग्रद्वीपवी वा सातत्यादिश्रवाबाधत्वाच्च” ।—Bk. VII, कर्मसन्धिवः, p. 298. कौटिल्यः—“वारिपथपथभोगयोरनित्यो वारिपथभोगो, नित्यस्थलपथभोग इति” ।—Bk. VII, जनपदनिवेशनिः, p. 294.

c9.s2.5

carrying on inter-portal communication. These were naturally more exposed to dangers than either the river routes or the land routes. Lastly, there were ocean routes (संयानपथ) carrying on the intercourse of India with foreign countries across the sea. The existence of definite ocean routes, clearly marked out, no doubt implies a high degree of development of the art of navigation.

c9.s2.6

The natural risks of water-carriage were, however, overcome by the efficiency of the means of transport that were in use. Ships and boats were built of various descriptions suiting the purposes of both inland and marine navigation. In the Arthaśāstra mention is made of the following kinds of ships and boats:—

c9.s2.7

(i) संयात्यः नावः, i.e. ocean-going vessels. These ships had to pay tolls (शुल्क) at the harbours (पत्तन) at which they touched.¹ Amarakosha defines a सांयात्रिक as a merchantman (पोतवणिक्).

c9.s2.8

¹ संयातीर्नावः पत्तनमुपगताः शुल्कं दद्युः । —Bk. II, नावध्यक्षः, p. 128.

c9.s2.9

(ii) प्रववहः This is another name for sea-going vessels, or more properly merchantmen, for it is thus defined in the commentary on उत्तराध्ययनटीका, p. 246: समुद्रिका: व्यापारिण: महासमुद्रं प्रवसन्तीति, i.e. “sea-going merchants cross the main in प्रवसन्.”¹

c9.s2.10

¹ प्रवसन्विभजमेकोऽमात्य: सर्वानमात्यानाचक्षयेत् । —Bk. I, उपधाभि-स्र्द्धीचाशौचममात्यानाम्, p. 17.

c9.s2.11

(iii) मक्तमुक्ताग्राहिव: नाव: These were the boats used for pearl-fishing in various parts of the ocean. They were generally the property of Government, but were also let out to private individuals on payment of the necessary fee (नौभाटक). But pearl-fishers were also allowed to carry on their business in their own boats (स्वनाव:).²

c9.s2.12

² मक्तमुक्ताग्राहिवो नौभाटकम् दद्यु, स्वनीभिर्वा तरेयु: । —(स्वनाव:) ।

c9.s2.13

(iv) महानाव: These were big vessels for use in those large rivers (महानदीषु) which could not be forded even in the dry seasons and were navigable throughout the year.³

c9.s2.14

³ महानावो येनपक्षीजाताव्यात्तु महानदीषुप्रयोजयेत् ।—Ibid.

c9.s2.15

(v) The royal barge was another type of boat, manned by trustworthy sailors (आप्तना-विकाधिष्ठित: नौ:). It had to be tagged on to another boat, evidently for the safety of the king. The king never used a vessel that had once been weather-beaten, and, as a further precautionary measure, soldiers were stationed on the bank or shore when he boarded a vessel.¹

c9.s2.16

¹ नावं प्राप्तनाविकाधिष्ठितामन्यनीप्रतिबद्धां (आरुहेत्); बातवेगवशां च गोपेयात् । उदकाने सैन्यमासीत । —Bk. I, चाणक्यरचितकम्, p. 44.

c9.s2.17

(vi) क्षुद्रकाः नावः These were small boats specially meant for use in small and shallow rivers (क्षुद्रिकासु) that overflowed in the rains.²

c9.s2.18

² क्षुद्रकाः (नावः) क्षुद्रिकासु वर्षास्विवीयषु ।—(माधवचः) ।

c9.s2.19

(vii) सतरवानि Besides the Government ferry-boats, there were also ferry-boats belonging to private persons. These were allowed to cross the rivers at all times and places.³

c9.s2.20

³ Ibid.

c9.s2.21

(viii) हिंस्रिकाः These were the pirate ships and boats. The admiralty regulation was that they should be pursued and destroyed whenever they were found. The same regulation applied to the ships and boats of an enemy's country when they crossed its limits (अमित्रविषययातिमाः) and also to vessels violating harbour rules (पण्यपतनचारिणोपघातिकाः).⁴

c9.s2.22

⁴ हिंस्रिका हिंसितव्येत् । अमित्रविषययातिगाः पण्यपतनचारिणोपघातिकाश्च—(माधवचः) ।

c9.s2.23

A reference has now been made to the crew for manning ships and boats. The captain of a ship was called the शाश्वक, and the steersman the नियामक. There were also the sailors, with sickles and ropes, known as दावरसिकपाशकाः. Lastly, there was a staff of sailors whose duty it was to bale out water (उत्तृचकाः).¹

c9.s2.24

¹ *Vide* नावधः. Cf. the list of crew as given by अमरकोष:—"कर्णधारनुनाविकः नियामकः पोतवाहाः।"

c9.s2.25

Besides the regular ships and boats, there were devised various other means of water-carriage. These were (a) काष्ठप्लव—pieces of timber tied together, serving the purposes of a boat; (b) वेणुप्लव—a boat made of bamboos tied together; (c) पलाण्डु—a vessel made of the bottle-gourd; (d) चर्मकरण—a basket covered with skin; (e) दृति—a leather bag that could be floated and used as a boat; (f) प्लव—canoe; (g) गञ्जिका—a floating device made of the leather of the rhinoceros; (h) वेणिका—a float of reeds, etc., woven together.²

c9.s2.26

Other means² of crossing water were the bridges of various kinds. Besides the ordinary bridges (सेतुबन्ध) there were also the bridges of boats as well as the bridges formed by elephants standing in a row.

c9.s2.27

² चर्मप्लवप्लवप्लववेणुप्लवकाः पलाण्डुचर्म-करणदृतिप्लवगञ्जिकावेणिकाभिरुदकानि तारयेत्—Bk. X, सभा-

c9.s2.28

In the chapter नावध्यक्ष: there are a few rules relating to the duties of the नावध्यक्ष (the superintendent of the admiralty department), of the खन्यध्यक्ष (the superintendent of ocean-mines) and of the पत्तनाध्यक्ष (the superintendent of ports). There are also mentioned the regulations as to the collection of taxes and ferry charges (तरदेय), repair of ships and boats, time and place for crossing rivers, entrance of foreign merchants into the country, arrest of suspected persons, and concessions made to some classes of persons as regards crossing and ferry fees, e.g. children, old men, etc.

c9.s2.29

वारप्रयाणम्, p. 363; वर्षारात्रमनूपग्रामाः पूरवेलामुत्सृज्य वसेयुः । काष्ठवेणुनावश्चाप्यष्टीयुः।—Bk. IV, उपनिपातप्रतीकारः, p. 206.

c9.s2.30

उद्यमानमनावृतं शित्रमखिकावेषिकाभिसारयेयुः । अनभिसरतां द्वादशपणो दण्डः, अन्यत्र प्लवहीनेभ्यः।—Bk. IV, उपनिपातप्रतीकारः, p. 206.

c9.s2.31

नदीदुर्गं हि सलिलस्तम्भसेतुबन्धमौभिस्र्याधमजित्यगाभीर्य्य-मपबाधुरकं च—Bk. VII, भूमिसन्धिः, p. 292.

c9.s2.32

शिविरमात्रं सेतुं रूपतीर्थशोधनकं कर्मन्त्वायुधावरबोधकरव्यास-वहनमाबोघनाय प्रस्तरखवरप्रतिविद्वापनयजनमिति विहित-कर्माधि—Bk. X, पत्त्यश्वरथकर्माधिच, p. 369.

c9.s2.33

Besides these, there were a few other rules regarding deposits in ships, the rate of interest for money lent or borrowed by sea traders (सामुद्राः) and the punishment for stealing boats.¹

c9.s2.34

¹ नाविकविनिमयार्थां सुविहितायां सवमुपरूढो नोपनिधिमभ्याभवेत्—Bk. III, नौपनिधिकम्, p. 177; विंशतिपणा सामुद्राणां । ततः परं कर्तुः कारयितुश्च पूर्वसाहसदण्डः—Bk. III, जहादानम्, p. 174; नाविकसार्थवाहेभ्यश्च परिहारमातिथ्यं दद्यात् । अनभियोगसार्थेभ्यामूनामन्वय सभ्योपकारिभ्यः—Bk.II, पण्याध्यक्षः, p. 98. चक्रयुक्तां नावं क्षुद्रकां वाऽपहरत एकपादवधः विशतो वा दण्डः—Bk. IV, एकाङ्गवधनिबन्धः, p. 225.

c9.s2.35

It is apparent from the above that intercourse was established in that ancient time between the empire of Chandra Gupta and very distant places. That foreign merchants used to come to his empire and that commerce was carried on with distant countries are evident from references made to them in several passages under the names of पारविषयिकाः,² सामुद्राः,³ सार्थवाणपाणि,⁴ and also by the use of such expressions as “देशकालात्तराणां तु पण्यानां,”⁵ etc. Lastly, in the chapter entitled कोशप्रवेश-रत्नपरीक्षा in Book II, among other things it is mentioned that कालेयक, a kind of sandal, came from स्वर्णभूमि, i.e. Burma; चीनभूमिजाः चीनपट्टाः, fabrics of Chinese manufacture, came from that distant country; and gems of various kinds, as well as अगुरु (the fragrant Aloe-wood) of several sorts, came from Ceylon (पारसमुद्र).¹ There are mentioned many other names of distant countries the products of which were brought into the empire by the means of intercourse that were established, but those already quoted are sufficient for our purpose.

c9.s2.36

² Vide नावध्यक्षः ।

c9.s2.37

³ Bk. III, जहादानम् ।

c9.s2.38

⁴ Bk. I, अवमर्दनसमवस्थे च हस्तिः ।

c9.s2.39

⁵ Bk. IV, वैदेहक-रक्षणम्; see also पण्याध्यक्षः—Bk. II; कर्मा-सन्धिः—Bk. VII, etc.

c9.s2.40

¹ Mr. N. L. Dey has very rightly restored the word Palæsimundu of the Periplus of the Erythræan Sea to its proper form as Pârasamudra (पारसमुद्र) in the second edition of his Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediæval India, the manuscript of which he has kindly allowed me to consult. His restoration of the word is confirmed by Bhaṭṭasvâmi's Commentary, which says that the fragrant Aloe-wood, called Pârasâmudraka after the place where it grows, is obtained in Siṃhala (Ceylon).

Linked texts (3)