Pre-Buddhist India: A Political, Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey of Ancient India Based Mainly on the Jataka Stories c5.190

c5.190

So far we have dealt with land or the natural resources which are of primary importance among the factors of production. We have seen that there was an abundance of fertile land as well as of mineral resources. The major part of the total population of the country was engaged in agriculture. We saw that the land was split up into a number of small holdings, with well-marked boundaries. The science of economic welfare has taught us that cultivation by fragmentation is a greater evil than fragmentation of land by sub-division of holdings. Small holdings there were, but there is nothing to show in the stories that cultivation by fragmentation was carried to excess. In other words, under the joint-family system—indeed an important institution from economic standpoint at that time—smaller holdings were brought together under joint-cultivation. Moreover, we have instances of estates of 1000 karisas and more. And, also, land was with the agricultural class. Yet, with all this, we must say that agriculture was practised on a small scale. Cultivation was almost always extensive, not intensive, though the methods varied slightly according to different nature of the soil-swampy, black, dry, and so on. The peasant toiled on with the help of practice and inherited experience, with little of scientific knowledge. The implements were simple. Still, the peasant does not seem to have been inefficient. But, as in all ages, capital was wanting. Perhaps there was no need of it. The average peasant, excepting a smaller section of *kuṭumbikas* or well-off peasants, corresponding to the Russian *koolaks*, was poor, though not to the extent to which he is fallen to-day. Agriculture is important not only in itself, but on it depend mainly the manufacturing industries. It is clear that the raw materials of every industry must come ultimately from the land. And so also with allied industries of cattle-breeding, arboriculture, pisciculture and mining of which we spoke before. We shall now deal with various manufacturing industries prevalent in the days of the *Jātakas*.