Pre-Buddhist India: A Political, Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey of Ancient India Based Mainly on the Jataka Stories c5.42

c5.42

This arable ground of the *gāma* (*khetta*) lay outside clustered dwellings and beyond the sacred grove of trees of the primeval forest (*arañña*) left standing when the forest-clearing had been made for dwelling and cultivation.² It was divided into small individual farm-holdings, each in the possession of an individual land-owner or a peasant-proprietor. Boundary stones (*thambhe*) were set up to distinguish the plots of land possessed by different owners.³ The limits of the whole *khetta* might be extended by fresh clearing of the forest-land.⁴ And while the majority of these farm-holdings were probably small 'manageable single-handed or with sons and perhaps a hired man,'⁵ and though the nature of agricultural implements would hardly permit big farming, large estates of 1000 *karisas* (8000 acres?) were not quite unknown.⁶ The fields were guarded by fences,⁷ snares,⁸ placards (*paṇṇasaññaṃ*)⁹ and various other means¹⁰ and field-watchmen,¹¹ from intrusive beasts and birds. The internal boundaries of each farmer's plot must, apparently, have been made by channels dug out for carrying the water for irrigation.¹²