The State in Ancient India: A Study in the Structure and Practical Working of Political Institutions in North India in Ancient Times c7.11

c7.11

fourth of his is all creatures." From his mouth sprang the Brâhmaṇas, from his arms the Kṣatriyas, from his thighs the Vaiśyas and from his feet the Śūdras.¹ Hence, the primacy of the Brâhmaṇa, the strength of the Kṣatriya, the utility of the Vaiśya and the low position and dependence of the Śūdra. Henceforward the principle of caste meets us everywhere. It is true that change of caste is occasionally recognised as possible. Viśvâmitra, for instance, who appears as a priest in the Ṛigveda is called a king in the Pañcaviṃśa Brâhmaṇa.² There, too, some kings are spoken of as performers of sattras.³ Cases of intermarriage between different castes are met with.⁴ Once at least in the Aitareya Brâhmaṇa the position of the Brâhmaṇa is subordinated to that of the Kṣatriya.⁵ But the general trend of the later Vedic literature points to the consolidation of caste. The Brahmanic supremacy is to be buttressed in all sorts of ways. "Him who reviles a Brâhmaṇa, he (the king) shall fine with a hundred; him who strikes a Brâhmaṇa, he shall fine with a thousand; he who draws blood from him shall not behold the world of the Pitṛis."⁶ In litigation, the king is required to support Brâhmaṇas against non-Brâhmaṇas.⁷ In the Atharvaveda, as elsewhere, the Purohita is exalted. "The rain of Mitra-Varuṇa falls not on him who wrongs the priest. To him no command brings success; he wins no friend to do his will."⁸ On the other hand, the Vaiśya is described as tributary to another, to be lived on by another, to be oppressed at will.¹ The followers of various crafts sink in estimation and form castes of their own. "The Śûdra is the servant of another, to be expelled at will, and to be slain at pleasure."² It is probable, however, that the fall in the status of the Vaiśyas brought them nearer the Śûdras and thus indirectly improved the position of the latter. In any case, however, caste barriers are now definitely set up and constitute a factor of first-rate importance in the political and economic life of the community.³