The Administration of the Sultanate of Dehli c14.78

c14.78

The most marked traces of Hindu influence are found in the administration of the villages and the *parganahs*, where Hindu officials, sometimes with their ancient designations, continued to function with little change in their duties. When Muḥammad bin Qāsim conquered Sind, "the citizens and villagers were allowed to furnish the tax-collectors themselves; the Brahmans were protected and entrusted with high offices, for which their education made them indispensable; and the conqueror's instructions were wise and conciliatory."⁴ The administration of the smaller areas and revenue was left entirely in the hands of the Hindus.⁵ This example must have been followed by Sulṭān Maḥmud of Ghaznah when he annexed the Panjāb; for he could not dispense with the technical knowledge possessed by the Hindu officials. Quṭb-u'd-dīn Aibak continued this tradition, which was maintained by all the sultans of Dehlī. The government dealt with the peasant through the headman of the village who was called a muqaddam or a mukhiyā. The former term was loosely applied to men of note as well as to village headmen; the latter is a Hindu title and does not find mention in the Persian chronicles, but it is used even to-day in the United Provinces and dates back to the pre-Muslim times.¹ The village accountant or patwārī kept the revenue records.² He dates back to time immemorial and is mentioned in the Arthaśāstra where he is styled gopa.³ The term khuṭ has caused considerable difficulty; it is used by Baranī who does not explain its meaning.⁴ The chronicler, however, uses it antithetically to balāhar; the latter has been identified as a low-caste menial by Blochmann, who argues that the khuṭ and the balāhar stand for the two extremes in rural society, but his rendering of 'khuṭ wa balāhar' as 'landowners and tenants' involves, in Moreland's words, "both a logical non-sequitur and an historical anachronism." Moreland correctly concludes that a khuṭ was a Hindu chief subject to the sultan.⁵ One question still remains: how did he differ from the rā'is and the rānahs? The context seems to imply that the latter were tributaries who ruled over autonomous territories and paid a fixed tribute to the sultan, whereas the former were merely agents who helped the government in assessment and realization of revenue from administered territories. Later the word zamīndār came into use; but it is used indiscriminately for all kinds of chiefs.⁶ The muqaddams and khuṭs enjoyed great concessions from the beginning of Muslim rule and lived a life of ease and comfort.¹ As they used their wealth to pile up resources for rebellion, ‘Alā-u’d-dīn Khaljī, who had to defend the state against great odds, took away all their privileges.² This naturally caused them considerable hardship, though Baranī’s glowing description should be treated with caution.³ After the death of the sultan, the extraordinary measures were withdrawn, and these Hindu officials and agents regained their lost position. Sulṭān Ghiyāth-u’d-dīn Tughluq directed his officers not to demand charā’ī or kharāj from the khūts and muqaddams in view of their great responsibility.⁴ By the reign of Muḥammad bin Tughluq the Hindu gentry had again attained a status which excited jealousy.⁵