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Mughal Administration c14: Chapter X. State Industries

Mughal Administration c14

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Chapter X. State Industries

§ 1. The Government as a producer.

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The Mughal Government was forced to supply its own wants by becoming a producer of nearly everything it required, because in the 16th and 17th centuries our country was in an undeveloped economic condition, the modern private organisations of production and transport were wanting, and the Government itself took a somewhat patriarchal attitude in dealing with its servants and subjects. Such State-factories were an ancient institution of the land, as, throughout the middle ages, they were necessitated by the circumstances of the times. Thus, we read that Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq, in the late 14th century, maintained 36 *karkhanahs* on which probably fifty lakhs of Rupees were spent every year, at a time when the Rupee had at least 25 times its present purchasing power. Afif's *Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi*, pp. 334—340, gives a detailed description of the management of these factories, and the Arab geographer Shihabuddin Abul Abbas Ahmad al Dimishqi, writing from the reports of merchants, tells us something about their working. (Elliot, iii. 578.) For the palace workshops in Fatimid Egypt, see *Encyc. Islam*, ii. 17-18.

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In Akbar's reign, about the end of the 16th century, the system of palace-workshops had expanded, as was to be expected from the development of civilisation for 250 years. His eulogist, Abul Fazl, writes,—In the 39th year of the divine era (1595 A.D.), there are in the imperial household “more than a hundred offices and workshops, each resembling a city or rather a little kingdom.” (*Ain.* i. 12.) Bernier saw them sixty years later and has left an eyewitness’s account of them (p. 259). We have also lists of *karkhanahs* in the official manuals called *Dastur-ul-aml* and certain other historical works composed at the end of the 17th century and later.

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But in order to get a clear idea of the economic activities of the State, it is necessary for us to distinguish between two classes of things which our Persian authorities designate by the name of *karkhanahs* and include in the same list, viz.,—(a) STORES of animals, articles of food and drink, and things in a finished or usable condition, acquired by the Government and kept in the palace, which required no further working up, and (b) FACTORIES proper, where raw materials were worked up by salaried servants of the State into fully manufactured goods fit for use.

§ 2. Treasuries distinguished from State factories.

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It is also necessary, at the outset, to say something about the different treasuries (*khazinahs*) in the palace, because they were intimately concerned with the stores and *karkhanahs*. About these, Akbar’s Court-historian proudly tells us,—

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“In Iran and Turan, where only one treasurer is appointed, the accounts are in a confused state; but here in India, the amount of the revenues is so great, and the business so multifarious that twelve treasuries are necessary for storing the money in,—nine for the different kinds of cash payments, and three for precious stones, gold, and inlaid jewellery. ......A separate treasurer was appointed for the tribute (*peshkash*) receipts, another for receiving heirless property (*bait-ul-mal*), another for *nazar* receipts, *i.e.*, presents, and another for the monies expended in weighing the royal person and for charitable donations.” (*Ain*, i. 14.)

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Here we get the designations and functions of eight of the treasuries, besides the grand or general treasury (called the *khazinah-i-amara*). A Persian history written by Shakir Khan in the middle of the 18th century gives the names of the twelve treasuries thus:—

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(1) *Andarun-i-mahal*, *i.e.*, the treasury inside the harem. This was the last financial line of defence of the Mughal Emperors, as we know from Aurangzib’s letters in the sad closing years of his reign.

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(2) *Baqāyā*, *i.e.*, treasury of arrears collected.

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(3) *Jeb-i-khās*, or the treasury for supplying the Emperor’s pocket-money, *i.e.*, for the payments made by him with his *own hands*.

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(4) *Jeb-i-faiz*, or treasury for pious donations, *i.e.*, the money which the Emperor annually spent in charity, as well as his weight in gold, silver and several other things, which were all given away to the poor and to religious mendicants.

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(5) *Khazinah-i-rikab* or the treasury that accompanied the Emperor during his marches.

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(6 & 7) *Khazinah-i-nazar wa peshkash*. These treasuries contained the tributes, presents, gifts made in accomplishment of vows, or donations for averting evil astral influences from the Emperor’s body made to the Emperor by his subjects. Abul Fazl makes them two distinct treasuries, but Shakir Khan (middle 18th century) joins them into one.

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(8) *Khazinah-i-sarf-i-khās*, i.e., the Emperor’s privy purse for his personal or *household* expenses. [This money was disbursed by the Lord Chamberlain *Khan-i-saman* and not by the Emperor with his own hands.]

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(9) *Bait-ul-māl*. Here the properties of persons dying without heirs were kept, with a view to afterwards spending them for the relief of the people in general. According to the Quranic law, the Emperor could not touch any part of this money for his own use. [*Encyclo. Islam*, i. 598.]

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The other three treasuries, as we know from the *Ain-i-Akbari*, were:—
(10) Treasury of precious stones,
(11) Treasury of goldware, and
(12) Treasury of inlaid jewellery.

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Two Marathi works, namely the *Sabhasad Bakhar* (written in 1694) p. 95 and the *Chitnis Bakhar of Shivaji*, (written in 1810), p. 76, give a different list of the twelve, which is due partly to their writers having made a confusion between treasuries and stores and partly also to the probability of the Maratha administrative system having been in some respects a departure from its Mughal model and exemplar. These treasuries are called the *Bārā Mahāl* or *Kosh* and named *fota*, *saudagari*, *palki*, *kothi*, *imarat*, *paga*, *seri* (or *sair-i-bagh*), *daruni*, *thatti*, *tankshal* or mint, *chhabina*, and *bahili* (variant, *jamdarkhanah* or wardrobe).

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Now, here *paga* (which means cavalry) seems to be a mistake for *baqaya* or arrears collected; *bahili* is *bahlah*, a Hindi word meaning the privy purse, (see *Ain.* i. 15); *chhabina* is the Marathi corruption of the Persian word *shabina*, meaning a body of horsemen accompanying a king on the march; and I take it to be a loose translation of *rikab* or the stirrup, which, as we have seen above, designated the Emperor on the march; *fota* stands for the general cash treasury; *daruni* is *andaruni* or the harem treasury.

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The rest are stores and not treasuries at all. *Sair-i-bagh* means excursion to pleasure gardens, and I doubt whether a special treasury was kept to supply the expenses for this purpose. *Thatti* means the cattle department. [*Junya Aitihasik Goshti*, i. 38.]

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The *Zawabit-i-Alamgiri*, folio 132b, names 24 treasuries, of which one is the General Treasury, and five others are included in the above list, while 18 are different. These last are the sub-treasuries for *ashrafis* (gold coins), the Lady Begams, fines, *rās-mahāl* (? *ras-ul-mal*, ch. III. § 4), *dām*, *āhadis*, *shagird-pesha* (menial servants), exchange of jagirs, *topkhanah* (artillery), record offices, *qular-i-Haidarabadi*, food of cattle, rewards, cash (*mablaghi*), perquisites of the clerks of elephant-stables, general expenditure (*kharch-i-kul*), and two illegible items, looking like *thika* (contract, hire) and *mutafarqa* (miscellaneous.)

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From the *Mirat-i-Ahmadi* (ii. 178) we learn that the provinces had only four treasuries, viz., (*a*) *Khazinah-i-āmara*, also called *bait-i-kharaj* or house of land revenue from the Crownlands, tributes and duties on the goods of Hindus, &c., (*b*) *Khazinah-i-baqaya* or dues for *taqavi*, tribute, &c., (*c*) *Khazinah-i-sadqa* containing the tithe of 2½ per cent, from Muslims* and (*d*) *Khazinah-i-jaziya* or poll-tax on non-Muslims.

§ 3. Work in State factories described.

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In popular parlance there were 12 treasuries and 36 *karkhanahs*, as we find even in Shakir Khan’s memoirs. The Marathi histories cited above mention only 18 *karkhanahs*, though these two works do not agree with each other as to their names. The *Zawābit-i-Alamgiri* (f. 132b) gives a list of 69 *karkhanahs*, but, on account of the bad writing of the MS. some of the names cannot be clearly read. The *Ain-i-Akbari* separately describes 26 of the *karkhanahs* and indirectly or briefly refers to 10 others, making a total of 36.

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Before examining these lists critically and enumerating the stores and offices separately from the workshops or true *karkanahs*, I shall describe the working of the State-factories.

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∗ *Zakāt* is the obligatory alms-tax of 2½ p.c. from Muslims, while *sadqa* is a voluntary payment for charity. In time the two became confounded together. (*Ency. Isl.* iv. 33 and 1202; *Quran*, ix. 60.)

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Shams-i-Afif writes thus about Firuz Shah’s *karkanahs* from personal observation: “The Sultan had 36 *karkanahs* and tried his utmost to collect materials in them, each of them being filled with many kinds of valuable goods and things,—[*i.e.*, plant, furniture and materials],—the number of which cannot be computed......Every year a large sum of money was spent in each *karkanah*. Some of these stores were *rātibi*, *i.e.*, they had fixed annual money grants; such were the elephant stables, cavalry stables, mule stables, camel stables, kitchen, lamp-room, butlery, and mattress store. One lakh and sixty thousand *tankas* per month was the fixed grant of these *ratibi* stores taken together, besides the price of their plant and the wages of their accountants and other officers,—making a total of one lakh and sixty thousand silver *tankas* ...In the *ghair-ratibi karkanahs*,—such as the *jamdar-khanah*, *ilm-khanah*, *farash-khanah*, *rikab-khanah*, &c.—the expenditure every year varied with the amount of the new goods ordered to be made in each (*farmaish*) ......Each *karkanah* was placed in charge of a great lord (*Khan*) or notable chief (*malik*)......A general superintendent (*mutasarrif*) was placed over them all, and he was Khwajah Abul Hasan......When the Sultan wanted anything to be made, he first of all wrote to this general superintendent, and the latter sent the order to the superintendent of the *karkanah* concerned, and the work was very quickly done......

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Each *karkhanah* had a number of accountants." (Afif's *Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi*, text, 337-339.)

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This Sultan had a standing order that when there were any workmen out of employment in the city, they were to be sent to him. The prefect of police used to inquire through his subordinates in each ward, and bring such unemployed men to the Sultan, who used to give them work in his *karkhanahs* or in the offices of his ministers or in the households of the nobles, according to their capacity and desire. (Ibid, 334.)

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The Arab geographer Dimishqi writes, "The Sultan has a manufactory in which 400 silk-weavers are employed, and where they make stuffs of all kinds for the dresses of the persons attached to the Court, for robes of honour and presents, in addition to the stuffs which are brought every year from China, Iraq, and Alexandria. Every year the Sultan distributes 200,000 complete dresses......Dresses are also distributed to the [Muslim] monasteries and hermitages......

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"The Sultan keeps in his service 500 manufacturers of golden tissues, who weave the gold brocades worn by his wives or given away as presents to the nobles and their wives." (Elliot, iii. 578.)

§ 4. Some chief seats of State industries.

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In the middle of the 17th century, the French doctor Bernier saw these factories at work during his visit to the Mughal capital. He writes: Within the fortress, "large halls are seen in many places, called *karkhanahs* or workshops for the artisans. In one hall embroiderers are busily employed, superintended by a master. In another you see goldsmiths ; in a third painters, in a fourth varnishers in lacquer-work ; in a fifth joiners, turners, tailors, shoemakers ; in a sixth manufacturers of silk, brocade, and those fine muslins of which are made turbans, girdles with golden flowers, and [the fine] drawers worn by females......beautifully embroidered with needle work.

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“The artisans repair every morning to their respective workshops, where they remain employed the whole day ; and in the evening return to their homes......The embroiderer brings up his son as an embroiderer, the son of a goldsmith becomes a goldsmith, and a physician of the city educates his son for a physician. No one marries but in his own trade or profession ; and this custom is observed almost as rigidly by the Muhammadans as by the Hindus.” (Bernier, 259.)

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In the provinces there were State factories at Lahore, Agra, Fathpur and Ahmadabad, as well as Burhanpur and Kashmir. The governors of the various provinces could not have maintained factories of their own, (except on a very small scale), as they were liable to frequent transfer. But they patronised local products, as they had to supply the Emperor all the same with choice specimens of these. “The king and the princes keep officials in every one of these provinces, whose business it is to put in hand the best goods that can be fabricated in each place. With this object in view, they keep an eye continually upon what is being done in that respect" [by the local artisans]. (Storia, ii. 431.)

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The development of Indian art industries under State patronage is thus described by Abul Fazl,—"His Majesty pays much attention to various stuffs ......Skilful masters and workmen have settled in this country, to teach people an improved system of manufacture. The imperial workshops in the towns of Lahore, Agra, Fathpur, Ahmadabad-Gujrat turn out many masterpieces of workmanship ; and the figures and patterns, knots and variety of fashions which now prevail, astonish experienced travellers......On account of the care bestowed upon them, the intelligent workmen of this country soon improved......The imperial workshops furnish all those stuffs which are made in other countries. A taste for fine material has since become general, and the drapery used at feasts surpasses every description." (Ain. i. 87-88.)

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Masulipatam, long in the Golkonda kingdom, was the home of many artisans skilled in calico-printing, and we have letters in which Aurangzib, then viceroy of the Deccan, requests that some of these artisans might be sent to work in the State factory at Delhi or Agra. It was practically forced labour.

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The lot of the labourers was not happy, nor conducive to the true economic development of the country. At the capital, which was the largest and richest city in the land, there were no private factories, no workshops owned and managed by skilful artisans on their own behalf. As Bernier rightly observes, "If the artists and manufacturers were encouraged, the useful and fine arts would flourish ; but these unhappy men are contemned, treated with harshness and inadequately remunerated for their labour. The rich will have every article at a cheap rate. When an *umara* or *mansabdar* requires the services of an artisan, he sends to the bazar for him, employing force, if necessary, to make the poor man work ; and after the task is finished, the unfeeling lord pays, not according to the value of the labour, but agreeably to his own standard of fair remuneration ; the artisan having reason to congratulate himself if the *kora* (lash) has not been given in part payment......How then can it be expected that any spirit of emulation should animate the artist or manufacturer ?......The artists, therefore, who arrive at any eminence in their art are those only who are in the service of the king or of some powerful *umara*, and who work exclusively for their patron." (Bernier, 255-256.)

§ 5. Classified list of karkhanahs.

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The Mughal *karkhanahs* as enumerated in the *Zawabit* can be classified into six groups :—

A. Animals :—

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1. Horse stables (*paga* or *astabal-khanah*), described in *Ain-i-Akbari*, i. 132.

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2. Elephant stables (*fil-khanah*), *Ain*. 117 and Marathi.

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3. Cow-pens (*gao-khanah*), *Ain*. 148 and Marathi.

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4. Camel stables (*shutar-khanah*), *Ain*. 143 and Marathi.

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5. Mule stables (*āshtar-khanah*), *Ain.* 152; in *Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi* and *Zawabit* easily mis-spelt as *sher-khanah*. Marathi has *sheri*.

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6. Deer-park (*āhu-khanah*), *Ain.* 221.

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7. Menagerie of tame hunting animals (*shikar-khanah*), *Ain.* 286—294, and Marathi; not in *Z.*

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8. Hunting leopards (*chita-khanah*), *Ain.* 285.

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9. Aviary for falcons (*qush-khanah*), *Ain.* 293.

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B. STORES, which were mere collections of things manufactured elsewhere:—

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10. Royal insignia (*qur-khanah*), *Ain.* 50.

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11. Arsenal (*silah-khanah*), *Ain.* 109; Marathi.

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12. *Palki-khanah*; Marathi.

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13. *Chaudol-khanah* or sedan-chairs.

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14. *Rath-khanah* or carriages. Marathi.

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15. Portable throne or litter (*takht-i-rawan*).

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16. Candle-sticks and lamps (*shama and chiragh*), *Ain.* 48.

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17. Torches (*mashal*).

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18. Library (*kitab-khanah*). Marathi.

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19. Chinaware (*chini-khanah*).

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20. *Khilat-khanah*, or store of dresses of honour intended for distribution.

C. Factories and Stores:—

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21. Carpets (*farash-khanah*), *Ain.* 53 and Marathi.

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22. Wardrobe or mattresses (*toshak-khanah*), *Ain.* 87. *Jamdar-khanah* in Firuz’s history and Marathi.

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23. Harness, saddles and bridles (*zin-khanah*).

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24. *Kir-kirāqi-khanah*. At first explained by Blochmann (*Ain.* i. 87*n*) as evidently meaning a wardrobe; but in his addenda (616) he derived it from the Turki words *Kurk* and *Yaraq*, meaning "the fur of the supplex". Beveridge (*Tuzuk*, i. 45*n*) accepts this meaning. In Shaikh Suleiman Efendi’s *Chagatai-Osmanli Worterbuch* (ed. by Kunos), *Kirqu* is translated as sparrow-hawk. Forbes (*Hindustani Dic.*, 544) explains *qirqirā* as the damoiselle crane, *Ardea virgo*. But the author of *Mirat-i-Ahmadi* with his lifelong experience as a Mughal provincial diwan clearly explains *Kirkirāq* as "whatever is ordered by the Emperor for his dress &c., such as *chikan-dozi*, *naqqashi* &c." (ii. 184.) We must therefore accept this last meaning.

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In *Zawabit* (14*a*), *Kirkiraqi* is mentioned as a branch of the department of plate and saucers. In the Jaipur palace records it is included in the jewelled ware department.

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25. Bedding and advance-tents for the Emperor’s journeys (*bistar-khanah* and *pesh-khanah*).

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26. Apparel of children (*rakhwat*, wrong plural of *rakht*).

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27. The same of *khawases*. But elsewhere the *Zawabit* (14*a*) speaks of *rakhwat* or trappings for (*a*) leopards (*b*) elephants, (*c*) the *haveli*, and (*d*) the *barish-khanah* or monsoon-house.

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28. Goldsmiths’ department (*zargar-khanah*), *Ain.* 18.

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29. Blacksmithy (*ahangar-khanah*).

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30. Jewellery store (*jawahir-khanah*), *Ain.* and Marathi.

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31. Goldware (*tela-alat*).

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32. Silverware (*nuqra-alat*).

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33. Inlaid-ware (*murassa-alat*).
34. [?] Copperware and cauldrons.
35. Gold embroidery (*zardoz-khanah*).
36. Ivory work (*dandan-i-fil*).
37. Setting shells (*khatambandi-khanah*).
38. Perfumery (*khush-buh- khanah*), *Ain.* 73.
39. Rose-water department (*gulāb-khanah*). [If rose-water was included in the general perfumery department, then I am inclined to read the expression as *kalāwant-khanah* or State musicians’ department. Aurangzib however broke up this establishment some years before the *Zawabit* was written in its final form.]
40. Oil or ghee (*raughan*).
41. Mint (*dar-ul-zarb*), *Ain.* 16 ; Marathi.
42. Paintings (*naqqash-khanah* or *taswir-khanah*), *Ain.* 107.
43. Dispensary (*dawai-khanah* or *shafa-khanah*), Marathi.
44. Shawls, *Ain.* 91.
45. Scarf-weaving (*chirabafi-khanah*).
46. *Ilaqabandi-khanah*, factory of silk cords and tapes.
47. Cloth store (*kotha* or *kuthi-i-parcha*) ; Marathi.

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This was quite different from the *mahal* of *Kathra-i-parcha* mentioned in the *Mirat-i-Ahmadi* (ii. 179) as one of the sources of State income in Gujrat. It meant the custom duty on cloth, and this meaning comes out clearly from its popular title, *mahal-i-sad-panj*, or the branch of five per cent, because in Aurangzib’s reign the rate of duty on goods sold was 5 per cent for the Hindus, 3½ per cent for the Christians and at first 2½ per cent, then nothing for the Muslim traders.

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D. OFFICES OR DEPARTMENTS of administration and Court-life :—

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48. Band-room (*naqqar-khanah*), *Ain.* 47, and Marathi.

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49. Artillery (*top-khanah*), including all classes of fire-arms and munitions. The Marathas had a separate store for gun-powder, called *daru-khanah*.

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50. Buildings department (*imarat-khanah*); *Ain.* 222 ; Marathi.

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51. Records (*daftar-khanah*), Marathi.

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52. Emperor's chapel (*ja-namaz-khanah* or *tasbih-khanah*).

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53. Store-room for heirless property (*kotha-i-bait-ul-mal*).

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54. Purchase department (*ibtia-khanah*).

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The Marathas had a *saudagari kosh*, to designate this.

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55. Free food kitchens (*bulghur-khanah*, or more usually *langar-khanah*).

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56. School (*talim-khanah*). In Firuz Shah's time called *ilm-khanah*. A Marathi historian translates *talim-khanah* as the wrestling school.

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57. Department of hire and wages, (*kiraya wa ajura*).

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58. Games (*chaughan, chaupar*, &c.) *Ain.* 297—307.

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59. In the 17th and 18th centuries there was a department called *Bewa-khanah* for the maintenance of the widows of the Emperors, who lived in the Sohagpura suburb of Delhi.*

E. The Emperor's Personal Service :—

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60. Kitchen (*matbakh* or *bawarchi-khanah*), *Ain.* 57 ; Marathi.

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61. Drink or butlery (*abdar-khanah*). *Ain.* 55 ; Marathi. Some Persian works read *sharbat-khanah*, some *sharab-khanah*, but the latter term cannot here mean a wine-cellar. The Marathi histories name *sharbat-khanah* and also *sharabi-khanah*.

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62. Fruits (*mewah-khanah*), *Ain.* 64.

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63. *Bhanda-khanah* (large earthen pots.)

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64. *Sahat-khanah* (conservancy or latrine).

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65. Store of *kauris* or small shells (to serve as the lowest small change), *Khar-muhra-khānah*.

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66. *Charkhi-khanah*, store of fire-wheels. (I reject the possible reading *Kharch-khānah*.)

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67. *Majmua-khanah* (? Miscellaneous).

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The above five are given in the *Zawabit*, which contains, in addition, nine illegible names of *kar-khanahs*. The Marathi histories add the following three—

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68. *Ambar-khanah* or granary.

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69. *Zarayat* or *jins-khanah* ; [this *jins-khanah* would correspond to the *ajnas* department in the Mughal empire, i.e., the store of things from which the mansabdars were supplied as part payment in kind.]

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70. Theatre or *natak-khanah*, besides the *sahat-khanah* and *sharbat-khanah* already noticed under other heads. The printed Persian text of Afif's *Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi* gives nothing new except *Shakra-khanah* and *zarād-khanah* (which I correct into *nuqra* and *zar-doz* respectively), and *rikab-khanah*, and *tashtdar-khanah*, meaning the stores of trays and ewers, which are included by the *Zawabit* in the kitchen department. In the *Akhbarat-i-darbar-i-muala* we find three other names, *shora-khanah*, *bulbuli-khanah* (department of singing-birds),* and what looks like *‘ilur-khanah*, which may be a mistake for *yuz-khanah* (department of hunting leopards or dogs ; No. 8 above.)

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∗ Br. Mus. Persian MS. 6598, f. 55 a. Irvine's Later Mughals, i. 254 n.

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∗ *Tasht-dar*, a servant who pours water on the hands when washing; an ewer-holder, also called *aftabchi*. Shora (salt petre for cooling drinks.) The quarter of Delhi where the royal singing birds were kept and which contains the tomb of Sultana Raziyya, is still called *Bulbulikhanah*.

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