Mughal Administration c18.s4: § 4. Other sources.
Mughal Administration c18.s4
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§ 4. Other sources.
c18.s4.1
The long Court annals of the Mughal Emperors beginning with the *Akbarnamah* of the 16th century and ending with the *Bahadur Shah-namah* of 1709, are strewn with information on changes and innovations in the administrative rules or procedure.
c18.s4.2
Certain other MSS. (such as the *Nigarnamah-i-Munshi* and the *Insha-i-Harkarn*) give blank forms of the letters-patent for appointing officers to their posts, which explain the nature of their work.
c18.s4.3
Father Monserrate’s account of the government and Court of Akbar (Eng. tr., pp. 203-212, justice pp. 209-211), and De Laet’s very brief reference to the Court (Eng. tr., pp. 93-99) are too meagre and shallow. Manucci in his *Storia do Mogor*, ii, 329-390, 415-421, and 449-452, gives a description of the Mughal administration Court and society, which, though short and often superficial, is valuable for its criticism and personal observations. In the Court news-letters of Aurangzib’s and his successors’ reigns, called *Akhbarat-i-darbar-i-muala*, we have occasional mention of changes in administrative rules and many illustrations of the actual effect of the system. The Marathi documents (mostly legal decisions and orders in favour of individuals, title-deeds &c) printed by Rajwade in many volumes, are another mass of illustrations, mostly later than the 17th century.
c18.s4.4
The *Kitab-ul-Kharaj* of Abu Yusuf ibn Yaqub hief qazi of Baghdad under Harun al Rashid lays down the root principles of Islamic institutions and practices (orthodox Hanafi school.)
c18.s4.5
the *Haskalah* (Enlightenment) movement, which had begun in Germany with Moses Mendelssohn, was now making its influence felt in the Russian Empire. The *Maskilim* (adherents of the Enlightenment) sought to modernize Jewish education, encourage the study of secular subjects, and promote the use of the Russian language alongside Hebrew and Yiddish. They believed that by integrating into the broader society, Jews could improve their economic and social standing. However, this movement faced significant opposition from the traditionalist *Hasidim* and *Mitnagdim*, who feared that secular education would lead to assimilation and the abandonment of Jewish religious practices.
c18.s4.6
The Russian government, under Tsar Nicholas I, adopted a contradictory policy towards the Jews. On one hand, it sought to "civilize" them through compulsory secular education and military service; on the other, it imposed harsh restrictions on their movement and economic activities. The infamous "cantonist" system, which conscripted Jewish boys into the army for long periods, was particularly devastating, as it often led to forced conversion to Christianity. Despite these pressures, the Jewish community maintained its internal cohesion through its religious institutions and communal organizations.
c18.s4.7
The mid-19th century also witnessed the rise of early Zionist sentiments, as some Jewish intellectuals began to question the viability of long-term survival in the Diaspora. The pogroms that followed the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881 served as a catalyst for this shift in consciousness, leading to the *Hibbat Zion* (Love of Zion) movement and the first waves of *Aliyah* (immigration) to Palestine. This period marked a turning point in Jewish history, as the community grappled with the challenges of modernity, persecution, and the search for a new national identity.
c18.s4.8
the Lacedaemonians, who had been waiting for the signal, now attacked the city. The Athenians, though taken by surprise, were able to repel the assault, and the Lacedaemonians, finding that they could not take the city by storm, withdrew.
c18.s4.9
This was the first time that the Lacedaemonians had attacked the city of Athens, and it was a significant event in the war. It showed that the Lacedaemonians were willing to take risks and that they were not afraid to attack the heart of the Athenian empire. It also showed that the Athenians were prepared to defend their city, even when they were taken by surprise.
c18.s4.10
The war continued for many years, with both sides suffering heavy losses. The Athenians were able to maintain their naval supremacy, but the Lacedaemonians were able to dominate the land. The war was finally brought to an end by the peace of Nicias, which was signed in 421 BC.
c18.s4.11
The peace of Nicias was not a lasting peace, and the war soon broke out again. This time, the Lacedaemonians were more successful, and they were able to defeat the Athenians in a series of battles. The war finally ended in 404 BC, with the defeat of the Athenians and the surrender of their city.
c18.s4.12
The defeat of the Athenians was a major turning point in the history of Greece. It marked the end of the Athenian empire and the beginning of the Lacedaemonian hegemony. It also had a profound impact on the culture and society of Greece, as it led to a period of instability and decline.
c18.s4.13
For B. KING, BOOK BINDERS
c18.s4.14
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