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The Political Institutions and Theories of the Hindus: A Study in Comparative Politics c14.s2: Section 2. Nîti-Śâstras

The Political Institutions and Theories of the Hindus: A Study in Comparative Politics c14.s2

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English

Section 2. Nîti-Śâstras

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The second class of Hindu sociological literature, viz., the *artha* and *nîti śâstras*, has been arresting the attention of scholars only for the last decade or so. As Kautilya tells us, many were the writers on politics⁶ in ancient India, though the works of very few are extant. There is a book that passes for the work of one Ghata-karpara. A second *nîti-śâstra* is by tradition fathered on Vidura, a statesman of the *Mahâbhârata*. The sage Vaiśampâyana is credited with a third, viz. the *Nîti-prakâśikâ*.⁷ Somodeva's *Nîti-Vâkyâmrita* is another such book. And there is a treatise, entitled the *Yukti-kalpa-taru*,⁸ attributed to king Bhoja of Dhârâ in Malwa (in the Middle West of India). This Bhoja may have been identical with Mihira Bhoja (c 840—90), the Napoleon of the Gurjara-Pratîhâra Empire. Finally, a *sûtra* or aphoristic treatise dealing with *nîti* topics is credited to Brihaspati, the same perhaps of the *Smriti* fame.

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⁶ A complete list of these books based on Aufrecht is to be seen in Law's articles in the *Mod. Rev.*, 1916—1917. Another list specifically on arts and crafts has been prepared by the same author for his article on "Vârttâ or Hindu Economics" in the *Ind. Ant.*, 1918—19. See a brief summary in Bhandarkar's *Anc. His. Ind.*, pp. 87—113.

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⁷ Edited by Oppert for the Madras Government. Banerjea cites a few passages from the *Nîti-vâkyâmrita* (*Public*, pp. 12, 72, 75, 98, 100, 103, 107, 111, 189, 190, 193, 271, 275).

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⁸ *Yukti* has been edited by Ishvara Chandra Shastri for the Sanskrit Press Depositary, Calcutta (1917). For A *Brihaspati Sutra* by F. W. Thomas see *Le Museon*, March 1916.

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But the only historically authentic, and for the present the most important *nîti* work is a volume of the late fourth century B. C., the *Artha-śâstra*¹ of Kautilya, the finance minister of Chandra-gupta Maurya. This treatise combines the theory of Machiavellian *Realpolitik* with the “blood and iron” statecraft of Bismarck. The dissertations of pre-Kautilyan philosophers seem to have been swallowed up in this volume and it proved be the bible not only of Asoka the Great’s imperialism, but also of the chauvinists of the Vikram-âdityan epoch; for Kâmandaka’s abridgment² of Kautilya’s principles, entitled the *Nîti-sâra*, appears to have been in circulation about the fourth century A. C. And as such it acquired a position like that of the *Prince* of the Florentine diplomat which used to be consulted by every English and Continental statesman of the “New Monarchy” period. The influence of the *Artha-śâstra* is accordingly to be noticed as much in the activities of Premier Bhandi the “king-maker” of the Vardhana House (seventh century) as in those of the Bengali premiers Darbha-pâṇi and Kedâramiśra (eighth and ninth centuries), through whose *nîti*, as the inscriptions assert it, the Pâla Dynasty became for a time the paramount power in Northern India.

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¹ Discovered, edited and translated by R. Shamashastry, of Bangalore, Mysore; *Ind. Ant.* 1905, p. 5.

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² Sanskrit text edited by Rajendralal Mitra for the *Bibliotheca Indica Series*; English translation by Manmathanath Dutt. See the prefaces to both editions. Kâmandaka acknowledges the Kautilyan origin of his book (I. 2—8).

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Curiously enough, however, in the history of Hindu political speculation it is not the historic Kautilya but a *nom-de-plume*, that of Śukra, a “sage” like Manu, that happened to become the patronymic of *nîti-śâstras*. The volume attributed to this *âchârya*, “learned doctor” or professor, viz., the *Śukra-nîti*³ (*Śukra’s Laws on Politics*) is almost synonymous with *Staatswissenschaft* or political philosophy in the scientific tradition of India. In its present form it is evidently a later compilation than the *Kâmandakî-nîti*, but it contains materials that go back to the earliest epochs of Hindu history.⁴

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³ Sanskrit text edited by Gustav Oppert for the Madras Government, English translation by B. K. Sarkar for the Panini Office, Allahabad. The text edited by Jivânanda Vidyâsâgara of Calcutta is different from the Madras text at various points.

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⁴ For a discussion of the date of the *Śukra-nîti* see the author’s *Pos. Back.*, Vol. II, pp. 63---71.

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The birth of *nîti-śâstra*, i. e., political science (science of punishment, “sanction” and sovereignty, or *danda-nîti* as it is sometimes called) is, like the origin of all other Hindu *vidyâs*¹ (sciences, known to be thirty two in number) and *kalâs* (arts, known to be sixty four), obscurely believed to be Minervan, or, in other words, divine. The conjectural account of its dim beginnings brings it down to Dr. Śukra as the last of the *riṣis* (sages) who cared to set his seal on civic, economic and political studies. Formerly, says the *Mahâbhârata*,² for the protection of creatures the science of polity was delivered by the Lord Himself. As it happened to be a huge volume Siva (a god) epitomized it in ten thousand sections. His work is known as the *Vaiśâlâkṣa* from his name *Viśâlâkṣa* (the “large-eyed”). An abridgment in five thousand sections was afterwards made by Indra (another god) and in three thousand by Brihaspati, a super-man or *riṣi*. This last was further boiled down to one thousand by Śukra. All this reduction in size was necessary because art is long and “life is short”. The story of this abridgment following abridgment is told by the compiler of the *Śukra-nîti*³ also. “For the good of men”, as we read, “Brahmâ” (the highest God) had spoken that treatise which contained ten million verses. By a process of selection the essence (*sâra*) of that *nîti-śâstra* has been abridged by Vaśiṣtha and others like myself for the increase of prosperity of the rulers of the earth and of others whose life is of short span”.

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¹ Śukra, Ch. IV, sec. iii, lines 45—200. For the significance of the term *danda-nîti* *vide* *Pos. Back*, II, pp. 29—31.

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² *Śânti* LIX, 76—86.

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³ Ch. I, lines 4—7; *Vide* *Pos. Back*, Vol. II, pp. 12—18, 21—29.

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It is clear, therefore, that in stead of comparing Aristotle, the father of European political science, with Ganeśa, the God of Success in Hindu mythology, who is invoked by priests at the commencement of all religious ceremonies Pollock should have commenced his *Introduction to Politics* with the name of Śukra, who in the estimation of India has monopolized the credit of systematizing and propagating *nîti-śâstras* among mankind. For the present, however, the real historic pioneer is Kautilya, the “guide, philosopher and friend” of the first Hindu Alexander, whose place may be compared to that of the chief justice of Bagdad, Mawerdi (972—1058), author of the Arabic *Artha-śâstra*, *El Akham es Soulthaniyah* (*Les Statuts Gouvernementaux*).

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Scope and Province of *Nîti-śâstra.

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Chronologically the latest book is, as we have seen, the *Yukti-kalpa-taru*. It treats of taxation, expeditions, espionage, siege, diplomacy, peace, embassies and city administration, besides other topics.¹ The *Śukra-nîti* deals with the duties of princes, functions of the crown-prince and state officials, characteristics of friends and allies, sinews of war, fortresses, army, general rules of statecraft, and social customs and institutions. In the *Kâmandakî-nîti* we have a summary of the entire Kautilyan system, except that it omits a discussion of the departments of state, civil and criminal laws and a few other items.

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¹ Vide the summary of its contents from a manuscript in Bengalı character in the *Pos. Back. Hind. Soc.*, Vol. I, pp. 12—14. The dates of *Śukra* as of *Yukti* are open questions.

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In addition to these themes, Kautilya's *Artha-śâstra* in its 150 sections grouped in 15 chapters deals with the training and personal safety of kings and ministers, relations between government servants and the monarch, the rise and growth of states, the "sixfold policy", the vices and calamities of kings, military affairs, and measures for the promotion of peace and opulence. The doctrine of *mandala* i. e. "sphere" of influence or of international activity is elaborately discussed in twenty sections (chapters VI and VII). Republics (*ganas*) form the subject matter of a separate chapter (XI); and to *aikaiśvarya* (one-man-rule) is devoted the section on consolidation and absolute sovereignty (Ch. V, sec vi).

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To a certain extent Kautilya's book may be used as an Imperial Gazetteer² of Maurya India, as it furnishes descriptive information on subjects like the following: Working of mines, operating of irrigation works; establishment of factories; maintenance of preserves and grazing grounds; the laying out of highways of commerce, waterways, landroutes, and other facilities for communication; establishment of markets and stores; construction of embankments, dams and bridges; planting of fruit and flower trees, of medicinal plants and herbs; protection of the disabled, the helpless and the infirm, and also of beasts; famines; census; central and municipal government; livestock. These treatises will thus bear apt comparison with the political chapters of the Arabic *Prolégomènes Historiques*, viz. Ibn Khaldoun’s (1372—1406) *Mokaddemah* (section III), or with the Persian *Traité du Gouvernement*, the *Siasset Nameh* by Nizam-oul-Moulk (c 1063).

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² Law's *Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity*, Vol. I, is based on the *Artha-śâstra*. Jacobi's German article (1912) on the authenticity of Kautilya has been translated for the *Ind. Ant.* (June, July, 1919). Jolly's date for Kautilya in the *Zeit. Deut. Morg. Ges.* (1914, p. 355) is disputed by Jacobi in the same journal (vide "*Ist das Daśakumâracharita gleichzeitig mit dem Kautilya Arthashâstra?*"). See also Mookerji's introduction to Law's book, and Keith's article in the J. R. A. S. (1916).

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But we need not depend on the topical analysis of the contents of these volumes for an estimate of the Hindu conception of political philosophy. For, the proper sphere or function of *nîti-śâstra* was discussed by some of the writers themselves. According to Śukra¹, *nîti-śâstra* is to dictate policies about allies, enemies and neutrals. It is expected to suggest the art of winning over the hearts of men. It is, besides, to be efficacious in diplomacy and international measures. While, on the one hand, its practical character as a manual of guidance for rulers is thus emphasized, Sukra, on the other hand, takes special care to bring out its universal importance as a *sarvopajîvaka* (useful to all) body of knowledge.² “*Nîti-śâstra*”, says he, “ministers to the interests of all and hence is followed and respected by all. It is also indispensable to the prince since he is the lord of all men and things”.³

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¹ Ch. I, lines 11—13, 25—26.

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² *Ibid*, 9.

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³ *Ibid*, 23—24.

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How is it possible that a *śâstra* should be serviceable to all the orders in a community unless it is a science of all sciences, i. e. encyclopedic in its scope? The claims of *nîti-śâstra* are therefore presented by the utilitarian theorist on the strength of such a “synthetic” approach to human interests. “Other sciences” are *ekaika-deśa-bodhi*, i. e. they treat only of singled-out or specialized aspects of man’s life, and are limited as a matter of course.⁴ As Śukra observes, one can do without a knowledge of grammar,⁵ for the study of grammar is not a *sine qua non* for the mastery of words and their meanings. Similarly the study of logic⁵ nay be dispensed with by one who wants to acquire a knowledge of material substances. By like arguments can the comparative “uselessness” of Jaimini’s *Mimâmsâ*⁵ dealing with the rituals and ceremonies of religion, and of Vyâsa’s *Vedânta* philosophy⁵ which treats of the “eternal verities” of the universe, be easily demonstrated, as is done in the *Śukra-nîti*. But the one science which nobody can afford to ignore is the *nîti-śâstra*. “Without *nîti* the stability of no man’s affairs can be maintained just as without food no man’s physical body can be preserved.”⁶ Political philosophy is thus the very basis of social *sthiti* or equilibrium furnishing, as it does, the spiritual foundations of human existence.

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⁴ *Ibid*, 8, 18—19.

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⁵ *Ibid*, 14—17.

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⁶ *Ibid*, 21—22.

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A *vidyâ* or science that seeks to impart knowledge calculated to foster the "preservation of human society" and provide the man-in-the-street with skill and intelligence becomes necessarily comprehensive and all-embracing in its topics. *Nîti-śâstra* in the hands of Śukra assumes thereby the proportions not of ethics or politics in the circumscribed sense, but of sociology in the wide sense of Aristotle's "architectonic" or dominant science. The extensive range of the subject matter of the *śâstras* on *danda-nîti* is adumbrated in the *Mahâbhârata*¹ and the *Daśa-kumâra-charita*² also, and may on the whole be easily comprehended by students familiar with the multiplicity of topics in Montesquieu.

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¹ ^1 *Sânti*, Ch. LIX, 139—143.

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² ^2 Pt. II, Ch. viii. The importance of this book in the antiquarian study of the *Artha-śâstra* will be evident from a single word *idânîm* which has given rise to the Jolly-Jacobi controversy in the Z. D. M. G. (1914).

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