Shudras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order down to circa A.D. 600 c10.341

c10.341

Although marriage with women of lower castes was permissible the Dharmasūtras show great aversion for connections of the reverse type.¹ According to Gautama a son begotten by a śūdra on a woman of unequal caste was regarded as a *patita*.² It is mostly to such marriages and connections that the early law-books trace the origin of about a dozen mixed (*varṇasaṃkara*) castes. Thus the issue begotten by a śūdra on a woman of the kṣatriya varṇa is known as a kṣattṛ, and the one begotten on a female of the vaiśya caste as a māgadha.³ The son of a śūdra by a brāhmaṇa woman is branded as a caṇḍāla.⁴ According to Gautama people begotten by the brāhmaṇa, the kṣatriya, the vaiśya and the śūdra on a woman of the śūdra caste are respectively known as pāraśavas, yavanas, karaṇas and śūdras.⁵ The son of a brāhmaṇa by a śūdra woman is called a niṣāda.⁶ His issue by a woman of the śūdra caste is known as the pulkasa, and the son begotten by a śūdra on a woman of the niṣāda caste is known as a kukkuṭaka.⁷ The issue of the union of a kṣatriya and a śūdra woman is known as an ugra,⁸ while that of a vaiśya and a śūdra is to be regarded as a rathakāra.⁹ The above list of castes would show that in the opinion of the Dharmasūtras *anuloma* (in regular order) and *pratiloma* (inverted order) connections between the śūdra and members of the higher varṇas were regarded as the most plentiful source of the origin of the mixed castes, many of whom were relegated to the position of untouchables. But most of these mixed castes were nothing more than backward tribes, who were annexed to the four original and recognised varṇas by giving them a wholly arbitrary genesis.¹⁰ Nevertheless, in course of time such explanations may have influenced new formations of castes, for these have been taken place even in recent times.¹¹