Shudras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order down to circa A.D. 600 c11.224

c11.224

As a work mainly concerned with the questions of economics and politics, the *Arthaśāstra* naturally does not supply as much information about the social conditions of the śūdras as the Dharmasūtras do. But it throws welcome light on the marriage practices of the śūdras and the position of their women. It informs us that, among the three higher varṇas, rejection of the bride before the rite of hand-taking (*pāṇigrahaṇa*) is valid, but among the śūdras this is valid before the time of cohabitation.² Again, it is said that divorce is not permissible in the case of the first four approved forms of marriage,³ which implies that it is permissible in the case of the *gāndharva*, the *āsura* the *rākṣasa* and the *paiśāca* forms of marriage. It has been shown earlier that the *gāndharva* and *paiśāca* forms of marriage prevailed among the vaiśyas and śūdras,⁴ which would suggest that dissolution of the marriage tie was considered easier among them. Kauṭilya also states that while the approved forms of marriage require the consent of the father, the unapproved forms require the consent of the mother as well.⁵ This indirectly suggests that the continuity of matriarchal elements among the people of lower orders lent some importance to their women.