Shudras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order down to circa A.D. 600 c11.71

c11.71

Possibly in the old settlements a large number of śūdras, agricultural labourers, slaves and artisans was employed by proprietors of the higher varṇas. The gopa, who is in charge of the collection of taxes from the peasants, is required to register the total number of the inhabitants in each village and also of half a dozen producing sections of society—namely the karṣakas (cultivators), the gorakṣakas (herdsmen or owners of cattle), the vaidehakas (traders), the kārus (artisans), the karmakaras and the dāsas.² It seems that the list includes the members of the two lower varṇas, the first three groups belonging to the vaiśyas and the remaining three to the śūdras. Megasthenes does not enumerate the producing castes in this order. While the vaiśya agriculturists (karṣakas) of Kauṭilya roughly correspond to the caste of husbandmen mentioned by Megasthenes,³ the vaiśya traders and śūdra artisans and labourers correspond to the third caste of Megasthenes the members of which work at trades, vend wares and are employed in bodily labour.⁴ Megasthenes further adds that some of these pay taxes and render to the state certain prescribed services.⁵ The first part of the statement probably refers to traders and the second part to artisans and labourers. In the Arthaśāstra the śūdras probably come under the category of the non-taxpayers, whose number also is to be recorded by the gopa.⁶ In the tax-paying villages a list is to be maintained of those who supply free labour (viṣṭi) to the state.⁷ Commenting on a passage of the Arthaśāstra Bhaṭṭasvāmin suggests that one type of villages was meant only for supply of free labour in lieu of taxes and its inhabitants were employed in building fortresses etc.¹ T. Gaṇapati Śāstrī rightly says that this type of work was done by the karmakaras,² for along with some others the dāsas and karmakaras were regarded as always liable to forced labour, which meant that they were not adequately paid for their work.³ All this would suggest that, excepting those who were sharecroppers working on the crown lands, the śūdras were mostly tax-free and were generally employed as agricultural labourers and slaves, who did not possess any independent means of livelihood.