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An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c14.s4: 9.4 Floods

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c14.s4

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9.4 Floods

v1.c14.s4.1

Heavy rainfall, melting of snow on the mountains, tectonic movements, cyclones, silting up of estuaries, deforestation and climatic variations are some of the factors that cause floods in rivers generally during the rainy season or in winter. Myths ascribe the devastation by floods to man’s sinful activities and divine wrath, as in the Epic of Gilgamesh and the story of Noah. Ancient Indian literature and traditions particularly the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* and the Purāṇas refer particularly to the occurrence of two floods. The earlier of these is said to have occurred in a very large scale covering vast territories and causing wholesale destruction. The latter occurred in a limited area confined to the upper reaches of the Ganga.

v1.c14.s4.2

Excavations at Mohenjo-daro have revealed that the city was flooded many times by the Indus. Sahni, 1956, noticed huge silt deposits at an unusual height near Hyderabad which he thought might be result of floods in the Indus due to tectonic upheavals. [Lambrick, 1967, however pointed out that what was regarded as silt by Sahni was nothing but decomposed mud bricks.] Raikes, 1964, thought that an uplift of the land down the Indus caused the blocking of the river and hence the drowning of Mohenjo-daro several times during its lifetime. Dales [1977] has pointed out the highest of these perched strata of flood deposit is some 30 ft (9·14 m) above the plain level. Evidence of floods could be traced from the different levels of the excavated area of Mohenjo-daro (Wheeler, 1968). The artificial packing and the building of platforms for structures in the later levels indicate that they were made to protect the settlement against floods. The silt deposits at other Harappa sites such as Jhukar and Lohumjo-daro could also indicate the same type of flooding. (The pre-Harappa, [4.8], settlement of KALIBANGAN is believed to have ceased to exist as a result of a flood in the SARASVATĪ, which left a thin deposit of sand.)

v1.c14.s4.3

Excavations at LOTHAL have shown that this Harappa port town was destroyed by floods at least four times but the inhabitants reconstructed it after each calamity and settled down again (Rao, 1973). The earliest phase of occupation having a deposit of 1·40 m in thickness was washed away by a flood. The flood of *c.* 2000 B.C. destroyed the habitation and the inhabitants took antiflood measures by raising a platform, but in *c.* 1900 B.C. a prolonged flood devastated the settlement again. Rao has suggested that similar floods devastated the coastal Harappa settlements at KOTH, RANGPUR, DESALPAR and BHAGATRAV.

v1.c14.s4.4

In Sub-pd II A of RANGPUR (*AI*, 18 and 19, 1962 and 1963, p. 15) there was a huge flood which is evident in a thick deposit of flood-borne debris.

v1.c14.s4.5

Excavation at CHANDIGARH has revealed that the remains were overlain by a 1·50 m thick deposit of alluvium, probably ascribable to a flood which might have totally devastated the settlement.

v1.c14.s4.6

In Sub-pd I A at BHAGWANPURA the late Harappans on their arrival raised mud platforms in two successive phases to get a high area for building up their settlement against the flood waters of the SARASVATĪ. After an accumulation of the deposit of 70 to 80 cm the late Harappa occupation was destroyed by a gigantic flood, its evidence available in all the excavated trenches. In spite of this the late Harappans continued to live at the site. In Sub-pd I B after a deposit of 15 to 20 cm which has yielded both the PGW [11.14] and late Harappa [11.4] pottery, the occupation was damaged again by a flood which washed away a major portion of the habitational area. In spite of this calamity both the late Harappans and the PGW people continued to live at the site.

v1.c14.s4.7

At DADHERI the late Harappans of Sub-pd I A had their settlements over solid rammed mud platforms, evidently as a measure of flood protection. Evidence of scouring of the habitation of Sub-pd I A and deposit of silt and flood debris is well-recorded in the section of the deepest trench at this site.

v1.c14.s4.8

It has been argued that the rolled condition of sherds of the OCW [11.5] at ATRANJIKHERA, BAHADRABAD, JHINJHANA, etc., are due to the fact that they remained in waterlogged areas due to the heavy flooding in the habitational deposits (Lal, 1968).

v1.c14.s4.9

After an initial destruction of the Chalcolithic [4.14.5] site of MANAOTI by floods the habitation was protected by a huge mud brick wall. Another major flood indicated by a thick sandy gravel once more affected the site.

v1.c14.s4.10

The end of Pd I of PANDU RAJAR DHIBI was brought about by a flood in the Ajay river evidenced by a 50 cm thick buffish silt deposit overlying the strata of the Pd.

v1.c14.s4.11

The 2 m thick deposit of the PGW of Pd II at HASTINĀPURA was largely washed by a flood in the river Ganga and this led to the desertion of the site for some time.

v1.c14.s4.12

Pd II of KAUṆḌINYAPURA is marked by a sterile layer which perhaps represents a flood deposit. In the earliest phase of Pd I of MASAON a sand deposit 2·5 cm thick indicates a flood.

v1.c14.s4.13

The site at NAGAL of the black-and-red ware [4.13] culture was occasionally encroached upon by the river Narmada on the n. tip of the mound where a regular dyke of black soil was raised with a ditch on the other side, perhaps to ward off the floods of the river.

v1.c14.s4.14

In Sub-pd I A of RAJGHAT deposits of sand and silt against the toe of the mud rampart indicate that it was subjected to flooding many times.

v1.c14.s4.15

Evidence of floods at UJJAIN during the pre-NBPW and NBPW [11.16] Pds is well recorded. The first settlers at the site (Pd I, pre-NBPW) made a massive fortification wall of compact whitish clay laid in bands separated by sticky dark clay with charcoal for the protection of the city from destruction by flood. Due to constant floods the rampart was heavily damaged and only patches mixed with flood debris were found during the excavation. In Pd II the fortification on the river side was again damaged by floods at least on three occasions. The first breach was repaired by the construction of 4·60 m wide brick revetment over a raised level of the rampart. In the second flood this was again damaged, leaving only 11 courses of brick. This was once more repaired by the massing of clay over the damaged portions of the revetment. The floods were massive and the sand and silt deposits could be seen in the habitation area also.

v1.c14.s4.16

Excavation at BALIRAJGARH revealed that the defence wall belonging to 2nd century B.C. and remaining in use till the Pāla period in its third phase of construction witnessed further reinforcement necessitated by heavy floods as evidenced by silt deposits.

v1.c14.s4.17

During Pd III at BAHAL there was a huge flood which could be identified by the sterile deposits of sand in several bands.

v1.c14.s4.18

A flood deposit of 3·20 m thickness at BUXAR could be traced in Pd II of the early centuries A.D. This heavy flood washed away most of the occupational strata.

v1.c14.s4.19

At PAITHAN a thick deposit of mud and silt with a height of 1·22 m noticed in the Sātavāhana period was perhaps the result of a heavy flood.

v1.c14.s4.20

In Phase II A of SHAMALAJI the fortification wall of the Kṣatrapa period could have collapsed probably due to flood or some other calamity.

v1.c14.s4.21

Pd II of URAIYUR (c. 4th-6th, 7th century A.D.) contained alternate deposits of hard clay, sand and pebbles which indicates the occurrence of floods and water-logging at the site.

v1.c14.s4.22

Dales, G.F., 1966, in *Scientific American*, 241, 5, pp. 92-100. Lal, B.B., 1968, in *American Anthropologist*, 70, pp. 857-68. Lambrick, H.T., 1967, in *Geographical Jour.*, 133, 4, pp. 483-95. Possehl, G.L., 1979, ed., *Ancient Cities of the Indus*, New Delhi. Raikes, R.L., 1964, in *American Anthropologist*, 66, 2, pp. 284-99. Raikes, R.L., & Dales, G.F., 1977, in *Jour. Palaeontological Soc. of India*, 20, pp. 251-60. Rao, S.R., 1973, *Lothal & the Indus Civilization*, Bombay. Sahni, M.R., 1956, in *Jour. Palaeontological Soc. of India*, 1, pp. 101-7. Wheeler, M., 1968, *Indus Civilization*, Cambridge. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—MADHU BALA

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