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An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c18: 13 Rock Art

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c18

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13 Rock Art

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It is ironical that although the first discovery of prehistoric rock paintings in the world was made in India, Indian prehistoric art is very poorly known both inside the country and outside, as by and large most Indian archaeologists have shown little interest in them. It was in 1867-8 that A.C.L. Carlleyle of the ASI discovered paintings on the walls and ceilings of rock-shelters near Sohagighat in Dt Mirzapur. Carlleyle was also the first to claim a Stone Age antiquity and authorship for these paintings on the basis of his findings in the excavations in the same shelters. Since then a number of amateur and professional archaeologists have discovered and described cave paintings and other drawings in different parts of India. Even then the study of Indian rock art remains in a very elementary stage. There is great divergence of opinion among workers with regard to styles, phases and dating.

13.1 Distribution

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At present some 150 sites of rock art are known in the country. On the basis of their clustering these sites can be grouped into following 19 areas: (1) Mirzapur, (2) Raigarh, (3) Pachmarhi, (4) Hoshangabad, (5) Bhopal, (6) Raisen, (7) Rewa-Panna-Chhatarpur, (8) Banda, (9) Katni, (10) Sagar, (11) Narsinghapur, (12) Bastar, (13) Gwalior, (14) Chambal valley, (15) Ghatsila, (16) Vikramkhol, (17) Hyderabad-Raichur, (18) extreme s., and (19) Attock in Pakistan.

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The majority of these are situated in the hilly regions of c. India, with the main concentration in the w. Vindhyas. Here within a radius of 50 km of the city of Bhopal there are several hundred painted rock-shelters scattered around the sources of the Betwa and Kali Sindh rivers. The main centres of painted shelters in this area are BHIMBETKA, Jaora, Dharampuri, Shyamala hill, KHARWAI, RAISEN and ADAMGARH. Of these BHIMBETKA, situated 45 km s. of Bhopal, is the largest repository of rock art in the country. Here there are well over 600 caves scattered on seven hills within a radius of 10 km. The next important site in this area is Jaora, some 50 km n.-w. of Bhimbetka. It has more than 100 painted shelters. Other major concentrations of painted shelters in Dt Raisen are Putli Karar, Kharwai and Ramchhajja. Altogether in that Dt there are 11 sites with over 1000 painted shelters. ADAMGARH near Hoshangabad discovered as far back as 1922 is another famous site with two dozen shelters.

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Twelve sites of rock art are situated in and around PACHMARHI town in the Mahadeo Hills in Dt Hoshangabad. In the Kaimur Range between Chhatarpur on the w., Robertsganj on the e., Mirzapur on the n. and Rewa on the s. as many as 40 sites of rock art are known. Other important centres are the Chambal valley around Rampura and Bhanpura towns in Dt Mandasaur, KABRA PAHAR and SINGHANPUR near Raigarh in e. Madhya Pradesh, Baroda forest area near Sagar in the same State, and Benakal forest area near Raichur in Karnataka. Isolated rock paintings are known from as far n. as Barachhira in Dt Almora in the Middle Himalayas and as far s. as Maraiyur in Dt Idukki in the Nilgiris.

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In spite of this wide distribution more than three-fourths of the rock art sites are situated in the Vindhyan sandstone hills of c. India. The reason for this lies in the geology of this region. Being a soft sedimentary rock sandstone is easily susceptible to weathering. The action of heat, cold, wind and water leads to the slow but steady decay of the weaker strata in the rocks. In the process cavities of various forms and sizes in the shape of holes, chambers, shelters and caves are formed. Sometimes the softer sediments in the lower portions of the rocks are washed away, leaving the harder upper portions standing as long projecting roofs. The same action leads to the formation of all kinds of weirdly shaped rocks. Sometimes massive rocks fall and come to rest against other rocks, thereby forming shelters.

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The region of the Vindhyan sandstone receives a rainfall of well over 100 cm per year and has several perennial rivers. At many places there are natural springs. Even today much of the hill country has a dense forest cover and in the past the vegetation must have been far thicker. There is a large variety of trees and plants with edible flowers, fruits, seeds, roots and tubers. The forests even today support a rich and varied fauna which again in pre-agricultural times must have been more plentiful. Abundant fossilized remains of mammals from the NARMADA Pleistocene deposits [9.8.2; 15.1] amply support such an inference. Ecologically therefore the region of the sandstone hills was well-endowed for supporting hunting-gathering populations. And it is no surprise that the entire region was colonized by man from early Acheulian times [4.2]. Though most of the settlements were in the open air along perennial as well as seasonal streams, caves and shelters were also occupied by man. Excavations at BHIMBETKA show that Stone Age communities lived in the shelters almost continuously since Late Acheulian times. Elsewhere as in Mirzapur area the earliest habitation in shelters goes only to the early Mesolithic times [4.5], though Carlleyle had encountered what he termed 'archaic' tools below Mesolithic levels. In the last 10000 years man also painted the walls and ceilings of the shelters with figures of wild animals and other subjects.

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Fig. 51. Rock paintings

13.2 Location

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Sites with paintings are usually situated in areas covered with thick forest vegetation and close to water sources. Shelters which are located at some height from the surroundings ground or near the top of steep ridges were preferred for painting, probably because they provided a commanding view of the valleys and surrounding countryside. In the PACHMARHI area the painted shelters are generally situated at places accessible only with difficulty. Well-lighted shelters were specially selected for painting activity. An interesting feature is that shelters used as dwelling places by man are usually always poor in paintings. On the other hand small shelters, niches and high steep faces of rocks are the main focus of paintings. Smoothness of the rock surface was not always a factor in the choice of a spot for painting; uneven surfaces and depressions also have paintings. Most of the paintings are found on the ceiling and inner walls of the shelters.

13.3 Superimposition

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Certain spots in the shelters once selected for painting were repeatedly used for this purpose over a long period of time. Later artists created their works over the already painted surfaces without caring to erase the existing paintings. Thus the successively younger paintings overlap the older ones. It is not uncommon to find three or four superimposed layers at one spot. The paintings of different layers are reasonably clear when they are executed in different colours. But where a single colour has been used for successive paintings, the latter tend to become a jumble, and it is difficult to disentangle them. Though this situation seriously affects the aesthetic appearance of the paintings it is of great help to archaeologists in establishing their relative chronology.

13.4 State of Preservation

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Because of their different ages and uneven exposure to sun, rain and wind th rock paintings are found in various states of preservation. The older paintings are generally faded and smudged and have almost merged into the rock surface. Sometimes they are visible only after being moistened with water. Paintings on surfaces over which rain water has flowed for a long time are partially covered under layers of black moss. Calcium carbonate percolating from the rocks has sometimes formed a thick white film over the paintings. In some cases figures are mutilated due to chipping of rock surface, sometimes accelerated by fires lit on cave floors. Figures executed in a perishable opaque white colour are generally seen fragmented. In some cases paintings are covered by white or red washings done by hermits residing intermittently in the shelters. At BHIMBETKA, Bhopal and Mirzapur several shelters have been converted into cave temples. Vandalism, mainly by 'educated' urban visitors, has done considerable damage to paintings which are easily accessible as, for example, at ADAMGARH, Bhopal, Raisen, Bhojpur and BHIMBETKA.

13.5 Colour and Style

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The colours used by cave artists are natural mineral colours available in local geological formations. The most common colour is haematite red which is found in various shades of orange, vermilion, light-red, crimson, chocolate and purple. The second common colour is lime-white which also is available in several shades such as milky-white, greyish-white and yellow ochre. Emerald-green has been used for a few paintings at Bhopal, BHIMBETKA, Lakhajuar and Jaora. Yellow, dark green and black have very rarely been used. Pigment produced from mineral nodules was diluted with water and probably mixed with animal fat and glue. Paintings are drawn on natural rock surfaces without any preparation of background such as by grinding, smoothening or plastering. Very fine as well as thick brushes were used. These must have been made of twigs and animal hair.

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As many as 12 styles of drawing can be seen in Indian rock paintings. These styles can be grouped into three main approaches: Representational or Naturalistic; Decorative or Geometric; and Stylistic or Abstract. Representational approach occurs mainly in the paintings of the prehistoric period and Stylistic approach in those of the historical period. Decorative approach is found in all the phases.

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Human and animal figures are generally shown in horizontal rows one above the other. No indication of light and shade or body relief has been given. Neither are the shadows of figures drawn nor is any suggestion of ground given. There are no foreground and background in the paintings. There is also no perspective or foreshortening of limbs.

13.6 Relative Chronology

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Correlating the various individual superimpositions from different sites as many as 16 layers of paintings can be distinguished. On the basis of their subject matter and style they can be grouped into nine phases, A to I, and three broad periods—the prehistoric, transitional and historical. Phases A to E belong to the prehistoric period, phase F to the Transitional and phases G to I to the historical period. It must, however, be pointed out that since we are dealing with material which is on the surface and only a part of it can be called 'stratified' there is a strong element of subjective judgement in the demarcation of phases and styles, and no two workers fully agree on this subject.

13.7 Contents

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The subject matter of the paintings of the earliest or prehistoric period consists predominantly of wild animals and hunting scenes. A great variety of animals is depicted. These include the tiger, leopard, rhinoceros, gaur, ox, wild buffalo, sloth bear, boar, *nīlgai*, *sāmbar*, swamp deer, *chītal*, monkey, *langūr*, fox, jackal and rabbit. At some sites such as Lakhajuar the fish is a very common theme. The snake and other reptiles are very rare and so are trees and plants. Animals like the wild buffalo, gaur and *sāmbar* are usually shown in large herds. They are portrayed in different postures and moods such as standing, moving slowly, running, grazing, looking back or down. The animals are realistically drawn and are marked by vitality and dynamism. On a large canvas such as in the zoo rock of BHIMBETKA each one of the many species depicted stands out distinctly. It is clear that the prehistoric artist had a thorough knowledge of the morphology and habits of the various animals in their environment. The size of the animals varies from a few cm to life-size or even larger. The bodies are often decorated by various geometric patterns like straight or wavy lines, dots, criss-crosses and other more complex designs. Many of these early paintings are highly mature creations and suggest a long evolutionary period behind them.

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Hunting scenes are quite common. They include individual hunters hunting one or more animals as well as communal hunting of large herds. The weapons used are the stick, bow and arrow and spear. In several cases the arrows and spears are barbed and tipped with what are certainly microlithic tools. In one scene at BHIMBETKA several animals are seen falling down a steep cliff suggesting that they were stampeded down to meet their death. Many times hunters are shown wearing masks [6.13]. There are also scenes of trapping and snaring of animals. Other economic activities depicted include collection of honey and fruits by men and women climbing trees.

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In some drawings the animal figures have characters of different animals. One of the most impressive paintings at BHIMBETKA is a large animal painted at a great height on a massive projecting rock. The animal has the body and face of a boar but horns and tail of a bull. It is shown angrily chasing a tiny human figure in front of which is a large crab. The same scene with a slight variation and on a smaller scale is repeated in two other shelters. Here probably we have the depiction of a scene from tribal mythology.

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No human figures appear to be associated with the earliest paintings but later on they are quite common and we see them with or without the association of animals. In contrast to the careful attention given to the realistic portrayal of animals, human figures are nearly always drawn in a conventionalized manner. They are stick-shaped and are often disproportionately long. Sometimes they are shown wearing a loin-cloth with long tassels hanging behind. There are small family groups and other scenes suggesting tending of the sick and mourning. At BHIMBETKA a man is seen drinking liquid from a pot. [For some interesting scenes see PACHMARHI.]

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Some paintings can be assigned to the transitional stage between the prehistoric (hunting-gathering stage) and historical periods. These show domesticated animals, scenes of daily life—carrying water-pots, bags and *kāṅwārs*, playing on drums and harps and goading animals. Sometimes horse- and ox-drawn chariots are also found in this phase. Both in number and the range of themes these paintings are limited.

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Paintings of the historical period are more numerous and best preserved because they are of a comparatively recent date and usually overlie older paintings. The variety of themes is limited and they tend to be extremely repetitive. The most common subjects are fighting scenes and processions. Warriors are shown on foot or riding horses and elephants. They use metal weapons like swords and shields, spears and bows and arrows. Processions consist of horse- and elephant-riders, sometimes with footmen preceding horse-riders. Horses and elephants are sometimes caparisoned. Less commonly does one see the domesticated cattle. There are Hindu religious motifs like Gaṇeśa and Kubera and *ālpanā* designs. The animal figures are schematic and highly stylized and many of them or so distorted that they look like caricatures. This art clearly marks a great decline in artistic tradition. It is certain that the painters of these figures were not inspired by artistic activity but were only repeating traditional motifs as a matter of ritual necessity.

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In the very last phases of the historical paintings there are a number of inscriptions or rock writings in Aśokan and Gupta Brāhmī [20.4.2] and *śaṅkha* scripts, always overlapping the drawings. Most probably these inscriptions were written by hermits and monks living in these caves during historic times. [The sophisticated paintings in the early and late historical Buddhist, Brāhmaṇical and Jaina rock-cut caves are excluded from the present scope.]

13.8 Other Forms

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The major form of rock art in India consists of paintings. There are however at a few places a small number of figures produced by engraving and bruising. The first record of engravings was made by F. Fawcett in 1901 in the cave of Edakal in Dt Kozhikode. These engravings consist of a complex of close-set and overlapping lines, and their exact significance is not clear. Later on A.H. Franche recorded engravings from Lower Ladakh. In 1923 P. Mitra found a few more engravings at Ghatsila in Dt Singhbhum. R.B. Foote, D.H. Gordon, F.R. Allchin, A. Sundara and K. Paddayya have found engravings and bruisings at several places in Dts Bellary, Raichur and Gulbarga of Karnataka. Engravings and bruisings are usually found on loose boulders in the open. In the Bellary area these often depict bulls and are believed to be the work of Neolithic cattle-keepers. Considering their subject matter and style the chiselled drawings appear to be younger in age than the earliest paintings.

13.9 Motive Behind Rock Art

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Perhaps the most controversial aspect of the prehistoric art is the motivation behind it. For Franco-Cantabrian art many theories have been proposed and it is generally agreed that no single explanation can account for all the paintings. In the context of Indian rock art it can safely be stated that not all of it was inspired by the desire to decorate the living places or for aesthetic pleasure alone. The most profusely painted shelters are invariably those which have little or no evidence of human occupation; conversely, shelters with a long history of occupation are very poor in paintings. Secondly, deliberate painting over already existing paintings also rules out the decoration as a motif in such cases. However such paintings as are found in dwelling shelters may have been done only to brighten the surroundings. A part of the older paintings—wild animals and hunting scenes—was probably inspired by a natural urge for artistic expression. Once prehistoric man learnt to point, what subject would he find more natural than the graceful and mighty animals which formed the most conspicuous and dynamic element in his environment, whom he either feared or on whom he depended for his sustenance? Hunting and food-gathering activities which occupied much of the time of prehistoric man and were crucial to his survival would also be natural subjects for paintings. On the other hand some of the paintings as those of large awe-inspiring animals, or mythical animals with composite characters, and complex scenes involving human and animal elements were almost certainly religious or ritualistic in character. Indeed the fact that the shelters with no trace of habitation are profusely filled with paintings strongly suggests that these shelters may have been sacred centres for initiation and other ritual activities, and paintings therein may be part of such initiation ceremonies. This function of cave art is well-attested by ethnographic records from Australia.

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No complex factors seem to lie behind the later schematic drawings of the historical period. Their subject matter is quite secular and not directly related to the way of life of the painters. The authors of these paintings must have seen royal processions and battles between the armies of local chiefs, and they reproduced these scenes from memory. In course of time this kind of painting probably became a tradition, and for generations artists continued to repeat the same kind of paintings in an unvarying style merely as a ritual. These paintings appear to have been done in the same spirit as much of rural folk art of India is practised today.

13.10 Dating

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The dating of prehistoric rock art is everywhere a complex problem, and it is even more difficult in the Indian situation. The paintings are on the surface, and no technique is at present available for dating them directly. So far no fragment of rock painting has been found buried in an archaeological layer at any site. We have therefore to depend on indirect and circumstantial evidence to date the paintings.

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There is no ethnographic record of any tribal group in India producing cave paintings. The tribal people do not accept any direct or indirect relationship with these paintings. When questioned about the authorship of these paintings they invariably answer that the paintings are created by female ghosts on dark nights. Some of them are even afraid of going alone in the painted shelters. We do not find any modern object, such as bicycle, bus, aeroplane and rifle, depicted in the cave paintings though such objects can be seen in the paintings made by tribal people on their houses. It can therefore safely be said that rock paintings are not the creation of present-day tribal people or their immediate ancestors. The inscriptions overlying the figures of the historical period are in Aśokan and Gupta Brāhmī and in *śaṅkha* scripts. Thus the youngest paintings are at least 1500 years old. Many of the historical drawings depict royal processions and battle scenes. Historical data from sites like Vidiśā (BESNAGAR) show that urban life and kingdoms in this area cannot be much earlier than 600 B.C. Thus the earliest limit of the historical paintings can be put around 600 B.C

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The older paintings which lie below the historical paintings in superimpositions clearly depict a hunting-gathering way of life and therefore belong to the prehistoric period. Excavation of the Mesolithic deposits in many shelters at BHIMBETKA, ADAMGARH and Mirzapur have always produced haematite nodules with tell-tale grinding impressions. So far such nodules have not been found in the pre-Mesolithic layers in the shelters. There can be no doubt that pigment from these nodules was used for painting. A part of the paintings is therefore clearly associated with the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. For BHIMBETKA there are nearly a dozen ¹⁴C dates from Mesolithic deposits ranging rom 8000 B P to 2000 B.P The eldest of the paintings can therefore be as old as 8000 B P However since even the earliest painting are mature creations they imply a still older tradition of art among prehistoric societies.

13.11 Significance

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The rock paintings are the earliest evidence of regular art activity in India and therefore deserve an important place in the history of Indian art. They provide an insight into the psychology and world view of hunting-gathering populations. They also tell us about contemporary animal life which is otherwise very inadequately known because of the paucity of skeletal remains.

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The paintings are also a valuable source of knowledge on the way of life of cave-dwellers. They contain information which is rarely preserved in habitation deposits. They tell us about the hunting and gathering techniques and weapons, about material culture, about dress and ornaments and social and spiritual life of their authors. The use of sticks, bows and arrows and spears is depicted in them. The use of microliths for barbing and tipping spears and arrows is documented in the paintings. Hunting strategies can also be studied. We learn about the use of traps and snares, ropes and baskets. Certain scenes tell us about family and social life, and some paintings clearly depict mythological and religious scenes. Indeed D.H. Gordon has gone so far as to say: ‘There is in fact no feature of their life which is not depicted in these paintings, but because they are clearly of no great age they have not attracted the notice that they deserve.’ Gordon wrote this in 1939. Research since then has firmly established that many of these paintings belong to the Mesolithic age and may well be 10000 years old.

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Gordon, D.H , 1958, *Prehistoric Background of Indian Culture*, Bombay. Ghosh, M., 1932, *Rock-paintings & other Antiquities of Prehistoric & Later Times*, Mem. ASI, 24. Gupta, J., 1967, *Pragaitihasik Bharatiya Chitrakala*, Delhi. Mathpal, Y., 1978, “Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Bhimbetka. c. India”, Ph.D. Thesis, Poona, Misra, V.N and Mathpal, Y., 1979, in *Man & Environment*, 3, pp. 27-33. Smith, V., 1906, in *Indian Antiquary*, 35, pp 185-95. Wakankar, V.S., & Brooks, R.R R., 1976. *Stone Age Paintings in India*, Bombay.—V.N. MISRA & Y. MATHPAL

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