An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c22.s2: 17.2 Human
An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c22.s2
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17.2 Human
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The first human (female) figurines of the subcontinent have been found in the settlements of the agricultural communities of Baluchistan in the Zhob, Quetta and Kulli regions. Male figurines appear for the first time in the Indus civilization [4.9], but here too the female figurines outnumber them. Both in the Baluchistan and Indus cultures the female figurines seem to be associated with a cult of the mother goddess [12.6] either as images or as votive offerings. Typologically the figurines of each culture differ and have their own peculiarities, although technically they have a common method of hand-modelling and applied decoration. While those of Kulli, for instance, are pedestalled below the waist, the figurines of the Indus are full-size figures having a fanlike head-dress with horn and cup-like projections. The Indus type of female figurines have, however, not been reported from the Harappa sites of KALIBANGAN, LOTHAL and SURKOTADA. Pregnant women and mothers holding children (in some specimens with bear or monkey mask) have been found at Mohenjo-daro. The male figurines of the Indus civilization sitting with arms around the knees, similar to the ‘sorrowful god’ found by Marija Gimbutas in Old Europe and dated to *c.* 4500 B.C., could have been representative of the subordinate male partner of the goddess who was sacrificed during seasonal rites. There are representations of the Sumerian types at KALIBANGAN and Mohenjo-daro and of a miniature mummy at LOTHAL, as also miniature masks [6.13] with horns and oblique eyes produced by moulds. Some figurines seem to be secular, for instance a female kneading dough.
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Human female figures are conspicuously absent in the peninsular Neolithic cultures [4.6.7-10]. At PIKLIHAL some crudely modelled male torsos have been found.
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Some female figurines have been reported from Neolithic CHIRAND, Pd I A, and from several sites of the Chalcolithic cultures of e. [4.14.3-4] and c. India [4.14.5] and the Deccan [4.14.6-8]. These figurines are typologically different from those of the Harappa culture. They have a plump physiognomy and stumpy legs and lack ornamentation. Most of them are headless, e.g. those from ORIUP, BILWALI, INAMGAON and NEVASA. The BILWALI figurines are fiddle-shaped. The NEVASA and NAVDATOLI ones are applied on storage jars suggesting a protective or fertility function. The headless goddess found within a clay box in a house at INAMGAON has
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Agrawala, V.S., 1947-8, in *AI*, 4 (for Ahicchatrā terracottas). Allchin, B., & R., 1968, *Birth of Indian Civilization*, Harmondsworth. Dasgupta, C.C., 1961, *Origin & Evolution of Indian Clay Sculpture*, Calcutta. Desai, D., 1978, in *History & Society* (for social background of terracottas). Dhavalikar, M.K., 1977, *Masterpieces of Indian Terracottas*, Bombay. Joshi, M.C., & Margabandhu, C., 1976-7, in *Jour.*
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perhaps links with w. Asia. Male figurines reported from a late phase at INAMGAON are also headless and are unbaked.
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Human figurines were rare in cultures associated with the OCW [4.12] and PGW [4.15] in n. India. LAL QILA (OCW) has two female figurines, one of which is well-preserved and has perforations in the shoulders for attaching arms. Among the PGW sites JAKHERA has produced human figurines (male and female), ATRANJIKHERA (late PGW and early NBPW levels, two females), KHALAUA (human head) and BHAGWANPURA (anthropomorphic figures).
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The largest number of terracotta human figurines of ancient India are found in the period *c.* 600 B.C. to A.D 650. It is from the pre-NBPW or early NBPW levels [4.18.1] that we gradually begin to get human figurines at BUXAR, PĀTALIPUTRA, CHIRAND, KAUŚĀMBĪ, MATHURA, etc. These are crudely hand-modelled and the use of the punching technique is noticeable. From *c.* 300 B.C. we get refined specimens whose face is moulded but the body hand-modelled. At PĀTALIPUTRA and SONPUR, early NBPW level, the 'dancing girls' modelled in the round with fluttering skirts seem to have Hellenistic influence. They seem to be secular in function and were meant perhaps to decorate palatial mansions. The BUXAR female figurines with foreign facial features, exquisite head-dress and vegetal and floral decoration on the head and ears seem to be associated with the fertility or vegetation cult. An important centre in the n., MATHURA, has steatopygous female figurines produced in grey terracotta with stumpy limbs, a well-marked navel and a girdle. Male figurines whose function is not known are also reported from PĀTALIPUTRA, MATHURA, SONKH, etc.
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In the Megalithic [4.17.9] burials at KADATTUR six human figurines have been found as grave goods. They seem to represent a foreign ethnic type, probably Scythian, and are assignable to the 1st-2nd century A.D. A few specimens of terracottas of the early centuries of the Christian era have also been reported from other Tamil Nadu sites such as KĀVERĪPAṬṬINAM, URAIYUR, KANCHIPURAM, ARIKAMEDU and TIRUKKAMBULIYAR.
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During the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. a large number of moulded plaques depicting human figures in relief were produced in the terracotta-making centres which flourished from Bengal to Punjab and Rajasthan. They represent both religious and secular themes. There are numerous goddesses decorated with elaborate coiffure, rich jewellery and fine or transparent costume. Male figures accompany the goddess on the same plaque as at AHICCHATRĀ and CHANDRAKETUGARH or are found separately, often with musical instruments, e.g. AHICCHATRĀ, CHANDRAKETUGARH, MATHURA, etc. There are winged male figures from VAIŚĀLĪ, BALIRAJGARH, TAMLUK and KAUŚĀMBĪ. Plaques with secular themes include garden parties, wrestling, ladies decorating themselves, amorous couples, etc.—themes which townsmen appreciated. The suspension holes indicate that the plaques, both religious and secular, were meant to be hung on walls.
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In the early centuries of the Christian era, with the flourishing of the Indo-Roman trade and the urbanization of the s. regions, we get hollow terracottas and kaolin figurines produced out of two moulds at PAITHAN, TER, BHOKARDAN, NEVASA, KOLHAPUR, KONDĀPUR, YELLESWARAM, NAGARJUNAKONDA, etc. The technique seems to have been borrowed from the Romans [8.1]. The themes include meticulously groomed male and female figures holding a bird and fruit. They represent a distinct ethnic type with a snub nose, thick lips, broad face and squat physiognomy. Some figurines represent Romans. A warrior with a Scythian helmet decorates a hanging lamp from TER. Plaques representing a headless nude goddess [12.6] of the personified *yoni* type sitting with legs raised (*uttāna-pāda*) have been found at several sites in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat as well as in some n. sites in the Yamuna valley.
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Fig. 53. Terracotta animal figurines: 1-4, 8 bull, respectively from Mohenjo-daro, Surkotada, Gilund, Kayatha and Ter; 5, incised ram figurine, Bhagwanpura; 6, nagini, Champa; 7, toycart, Chandraketugarh
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Fig. 54. Terracotta human figurines; 1, female figure, Mohenjo-daro; 2, figure on storage jar, Nevasa; 3, female figurine, Lal Qila; 4, female figure, Mathura; 5, male figurine, Nevasa
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In n. India during the early centuries of the Christian era both hand-modelled and moulded human figurines were produced. The former mode was more popular particularly in making portrait-like heads found at many sites of the Ganga-Yamuna valley of which MATHURA, KAUŚĀMBĪ and BHITA have produced fine specimens. These heads represent a variety of ethnic types. New gods and goddesses appeared, viz. Durgā Mahiṣāsuramardinī, Viṣṇu, Kārttikeya, Buddha, etc. Parthian influence is seen in female figurines and drummers sitting on votive tanks [12.11].
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During the period 300 to 650, several n. Indian sites such as RAJGHAT, BHITARI, BHITA, MATHURA, AHICCHATRĀ, VAIŚĀLĪ, etc., had figurines of finely levigated clay, neatly produced out of moulds and often painted. These represent men, women, couples, mother and child, Śiva and Pārvatī, dwarfs, etc., all of which have standardized features but varieties of hair-styles. Miniature moulded plaques depict interesting compositions of which a girl on the swing from RAGHAT⁴ is noteworthy.
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After 650 portable human figurines were produced in small numbers at sites like AHICCHATRĀ, ATRANJIKHERA, KANAUJ, etc., which show a continuation of some types of the previous period. Between 850 and 1100 we get at AHICCHATRĀ some different types of terracottas representing *mallas* (wrestlers), dagger-shaped crude figurines and thin plaques of deities and *sattī-sattā* (a couple of which the female became a *satī*) [12.7]. The last are also seen at KASHIPUR, KANAUJ, etc., and seem to have been used as votive offerings near *satī* stones.
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For bibliography see 17.1. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—D. DESAI