An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s18.t4: 4.18.11 Lower Deccan
An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s18.t4
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4.18.11 Lower Deccan
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The early historical period in Karnataka is a continuation of the Iron Age distinguished by its Megalithic [4.17.8] burial monuments and associated pottery. But far more important is the impact of the n. ushering in the roots of urbanization, trade, money economy and heterodox religions, first Jainism and then Buddhism. This impact is reflected in the fortified towns like BANAVASI, UDAYAVARA and possibly VADAGAON-MADHAVPUR, punch-marked coins [3.1], *stūpas* and *caityas*, etc., as at BANAVASI, SANNATHI, etc. Later through the sea-borne trade of the Sātavāhanas contact with the Roman traders is borne out by Sātavāhana coins bearing figures of the ship, Roman coins, the Rouletted Ware [11.21], etc. The period also witnessed an extensive structural activity. The Brāhmī script [20.4.2] utilized to its maximum by Aśoka, a few of whose edicts are seen in Karnataka as well, remained the only script in Karnataka till the evolution of old Kannaḍa in late, historical times, although the Kadamba rulers did have their own variety of Brāhmī.
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Several sites right from n. Karnataka to the Kaveri basin have been excavated and have revealed a uniform of pattern of cultural assemblage. However urban impact is more on the sites situated on the ancient trade routes rather than the remote rural complex as at HEMMIGE.
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The ceramics of the period, all wheel-turned, consist of the Black-and-red Ware [11.15.3], Russet-coated Painted Ware [11.15], Red Polished Ware [11.23], slipped and plain red ware and black-slipped ware. The Black-and-red Ware is of the Megalithic fabric, thin to medium in section and salt-glazed. The common shapes are the bowl and dish. The Red Polished Ware, comparable with that found in w. India in corresponding levels, is of fine well-levigated clay with a smooth red slip and polish. The red-slipped ware, the predominant industry of the period, varying in colour from chocolate brown to deep red, is of medium to coarse fabric and thick in section. The globular jar, dish and spouted and handled vessel are seen in this ware. The plain red ware has no slip and is of coarse to medium fabric and is thick-sectioned. The disc-bottomed bowl with flaring-out sides, featureless rim, large dish, deep beaker and miniature vessel together with the lamp [6.11], are some of the shapes. The black-slipped ware is represented by the bowl, shallow dish, high-necked vessel, chalice, etc.
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The Russet-coated Painted Ware painted as usual with lime or kaolin under a russet-coloured slip is an intrusion. Paintings are found both in the Black-and-red Ware and red wares and consist of geometric and linear patterns. Incised decorations mostly on red ware comprise thumb-nail marks, herring-bones, chevrons, etc.
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Some time in the 1st century A.D. the Rouletted Ware mainly represented by a beaked dish appears on the scene.
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Personal ornaments consist of bangles of various materials, beads of semiprecious stones, paste, glass, shell and lapis lazuli. Gold was also utilized. Iron objects are mostly utilitarian and are for domestic purposes rather than hunt or war and comprise chisels, nails, knives, flat bars, rings and small spearheads or daggers.
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Brick fortifications at BANAVASI (built on a rubble foundation) UDAYAVARA and VADAGAON-MADHAVPUR, *caityas* and *stūpas* at BRAHMAGIRI, BANAVASI and SANNATHI, apsidal religious (?) structures at VADAGAON-MADHAVPUR, brick-built residential complexes with square and circular wells and brick-lined storage bins at VADAGAON-MADHAVPUR, cisterns at the same place and CHANDRAVALLI, brick-paved floors at CHANDRAVALLI, and VADAGAON-MADHAVPUR, stone drain at CHANDRAVALLI, brick-built drains at VADAGAON-MADHAVPUR etc., represent the structural activity. House complexes exposed at VADAGAON-MADHAVPUR were two-roomed with/without verandas and with openings and post-holes for door jambs. The bricks seem to have been laid on the English bonding system. For circular wells wedge-shaped bricks are used. Bricks of various sizes, viz. 43 × 22 × 7, 34 × 33 × 10, 24 × 24 × 7·8, 44 × 27 × 10 and 35 × 25 × 10 cm, are used in the constructions.
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The coins found in this period consist of punch-marked silver and copper ones of the pre-Sātavāhana period, those of Cuṭukulananda, Mūḷananda, Yajnaśrī Sātakarṇi, Vāsiṣṭhīputra Puḷumavi, Mahāraṭhi Saḍakana Kaḷalāya and Gotamīputa Viḷivāyakura and Roman silver and gold coins ranging those of Augustus to Tiberius, Claudius, etc.
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For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—K.S. RAMACHANDRAN
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*4.18.12 S. and s.-w. region* The period of early historical cultures in Tamil Nadu and Kerala largely overlaps the age of the Tamil Śaṅgam, usually assigned to the first three centuries A.D. During the last 30 years a number of vertical excavations at selected sites in Tamil Nadu and Kerala throw light on the cultural equipment and attainments of the people and corroborate in some measure the evidence from the Śaṅgam literature. The excavated sites include KANCHIPURAM and VASAVASAMUDRAM (Palar basin), KARUR, TIRUKKAMPULIYUR, ALAGARAI, URAIYUR and KĀVERĪPŪMPAṬṬIṆAM (lower Kaveri valley) and KORKAI (lower Tamraparni), besides the coastal sites of ARIKAMEDU (near Pondicherry) and NATTAMEDU (Dt s. Arcot.) in the e., all in Tamil Nadu, and KONDUNGALUR in Kerala. The reports except those of ARIKAMEDU, TIRUKKAMPULIYUR and ALAGARAI have not yet been published. Most of the sites, archaeologically speaking, came into prominence in the 3rd-2nd centuries B.C. and continued to flourish even after the early historical period.
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Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Quantities of husk and charred paddy from the earlier levels at TIRUKKAMPULIYUR, iron sickles, tips of ploughs etc., from the Megalithic burials [4.17.10] and the embankment of a reservoir with an inlet at KĀVERĪPŪMPAṬṬIṆAM supply evidence on the agricultural activities during the period. The agrarian community was supported by subsidiary industries such as pottery, weaving and dyeing, metal-working, etc. besides the imported and imitation Roman wares such as of the Black-and-red Ware [11.15.3], the Russet-coated Painted Ware [11.22] and the red-slipped ware, besides the imported and imitation Roman wares such as the Arretine [11.20], amphorae [11.19] and the Rouletted Ware [11.21] at a number of sites shows a perfected and sophisticated ceramic industry. The two dyeing vats of brick, one at ARIKAMEDU and the other at URAIYUR, and a bunch of silk thread found at TIRUKKAMPULIYUR, of a slightly later date, would prove the practice of weaving and dyeing during the period. Knowledge of metallurgy had advanced considerably and iron, copper, tin, silver and gold were known. The metal objects included weapons of war, household articles, objects of ornamentation, miscellaneous objects and coins. Objects of gold are not available.
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The terracotta objects from various sites include gods and goddesses, auspicious symbols, figures of both male and female and miscellaneous objects. A terracotta female figurine beautifully draped in full *sārī* from ARIKAMEDU is an excellent piece of art. Though the objects are all handmade and local in character a few of them show alien influence such as some busts with a hair-style similar to those of the Gandhāra figures.
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The brick and lime-mortar structures (ARIKAMEDU), a huge reservoir and Buddhist *vihāra*, all of massive burnt bricks (KĀVERĪPŪMPAṬṬINAM), a part of a *stūpa*-like structure (KANCHIPURAM), all taken together, would give an insight into the building activities of the period. The existence of houses with thatched roofs is evidenced by a number of post-holes in alignment. Flooring with rammed earth and mud walls have also been noticed.
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The occurrence of Roman wares at ARIKAMEDU, KANCHIPURAM, SANGAMEDU, URAIYUR, KARUR, KĀVERĪPŪMPATTINAM, etc., would point to active trade with foreign countries, particularly the Roman world. Roman coins unearthed from ARIKAMEDU as elsewhere in s. India suggest a trade route from the w. to the e. coast through the Palghat pass, though a direct maritime route was also in use. Remains of what appears to be a wharf in the backwaters of the sea at KĀVERĪPŪMPAṬṬINAM point to the trading operations in the e. coast. A piece of wood found in the construction was probably used for anchoring ships. The occurrence of a few pieces of black polished ware at KORKAI taken by the excavator to be the NBPW [11.16] would suggest that this city in the extreme s. had contacts with n. India. Several punch-marked coins [3.1], besides Roman and Sātavāhana coins, are available from a few excavations.
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The graffiti and writing on the pottery [20.1] are important as they throw significant light on the practice of writing. Some inscribed potsherds have been found at KORKAI, ALAGARAI, URAIYUR, ARIKAMEDU, KANCHIPURAM, etc. among which are from URAIYUR with 13 Tamil Brāhmī letters is important due to the length and content of the inscription. The inscribed cave records (Champakalakshmi, 1974) ranging in date from the 3rd century B.C. are important linguistically and palaeographically.
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The excavated finds supply ample evidence on the religious beliefs and practices of the period. The graffiti such as the sun, moon, star, river, mountain, tree, *triśūla*, *svastikā*, etc., attest to the prevalence of worship of supernatural powers and veneration of auspicious symbols. Besides some religious concepts such as the worship of the divine mother were also in practice. KĀVERĪPŪMPAṬṬINAM and KANCHIPURAM have yielded remains of Buddhist buildings, and the natural caves inhabited by Jaina monks (Champakalakshmi, 1974) attest to the prevalence of Jainism as well. The burial practice of some communities was Megalithic, at least for the earlier part of the period.
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*AR Arch. Dept. Cochin State, 1947*, Champakalakshmi, R., 1974, in Ghosh, A., ed., *Jaina Art & Architecture*, 1, New Delhi. Mahalingam, T.V., 1970, *Report on the Excavations in the Lower Kavery Valley*, Madras. For sites *see* respective entries in vol. II.—T.V. MAHALINGAM