An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v2.c44: R

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v2.c44

Language: English

R

v2.c44.1

**Raba,** Dt Visakhapatnam. Mesolithic [4.5] site. *Jour. Andhra Historical Res. Soc.*, 35, pp. 323-6.

v2.c44.2

**Rachanpalli,** Dt Gulbarga. Megalithic site [4.17.8] with stone circles. *Jour. Geological Survey of Hyderabad*, 4, 1, pp. 85-9.

v2.c44.4

**Racherla,** Dt Kurnool. Black-slipped and red ware sherds of the early historical period. *IAR 1965-6.*

v2.c44.5

**Radiabindha,** Dt Mayurbhanj. Neolithic [4.6.7] and microlithic (of unspecified nature) site. *IAR 1958-9.*

v2.c44.6

**Raduapur,** Dt Datia. Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) site. *IAR 1971-2.*

v2.c44.7

**Ragalapuram,** Dt Madurai. Megalithic [4.17.9] site with dolmens. Sewell, R., 1882. *Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency of Madras*, Madras.

v2.c44.8

**Raghavalum, Rajawala,** Dt Bellary. Megalithic [4.17.8] site with chamber tombs. Sundara, A., 1975, *Early Chamber Tombs of s. India*, Delhi, pp. 46-7.

v2.c44.9

**Raghawapalli,** Dt Kolar. Megalithic [4.17.8] site with stone circles and cists. Information from C. Krishnamurthy through A. Sundara.

v2.c44.10

**Ragigudda,** Dt Bangalore. Megalithic [4.17.8] site. *Prajavani*, 19 June 1976, p. 6.

v2.c44.11

**Rahalvadar,** Dt Bhavnagar. Early historical [4.18.2] site. *IAR 1971-2.*

v2.c44.13

**Rahaun,** Dt Ambala. BARA pottery of SANGHOL I B affiliation. *Arch. Congress & Seminar, 1972*, Kurukshetra, 1976.

v2.c44.15

**Raheli,** Dt Sagar. Palaeolithic [4.2] site. *IAR 1958-9.*

v2.c44.16

**Rahimabad,** Dt Gurdaspur. Early historical [4.18.1] remains. See ACHAL-SAHER *IAR 1961-2.*

v2.c44.17

**Rahina,** Dt Ambala. Harappa [4.9] site. *Arch. Congress & Seminar, 1972*, Kurukshetra, 1976.

**Rahuri,** Dt Ahmadnagar. From the trenches of the spillway and the main dam of the Mula at Mula-Nagar fossil bones of *Bos namadicus* and the tusk of *Elephas* were collected *in situ* along with a few Middle Stone Age [4.3] tools. *IAR 1966-7.*

v2.c44.19

**Rahuri Budruk,** Dt Ahmadnagar. Microliths (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1958-9.*

v2.c44.20

**Rahuri Khurd,** Dt Ahmadnagar. Microliths (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1958-9.*

v2.c44.21

**Rai,** Dt Muzzaffarnagar. Grey ware, Black-slipped Ware [11.13], Śuṅga-Kushan red ware and sherds of thick grey ware with graffiti [20.1] in Brāhmī script [20.4.2]. *IAR 1963-4.*

v2.c44.22

**Raibar,** Dt Hoshangabad. Early and Middle Stone Age (Lower and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3]) tools. *IAR 1961-2.*

v2.c44.23

**Raidrug,** Dt Bellary. Pointed-butt polished stone axes [4.6.9]. *ASI-AR 1930-4.*

v2.c44.24

**Raigad,** Dt Dhule. Palaeolithic [4.2] factory site. (Same as following?) Gururaja Rao, B.K., ed., *Decade of Arch. Studies in s. India*, Dharwar, p. 20.

v2.c44.25

**Raigarh,** Dt Dhule. Palaeolithic [4.2] tools were picked up at the foot of a hill. The tools were mostly on flakes of haematite and the collection consisted of a couple of bifacial handaxes on core and scrapers, tranchets, ovates, points, etc., on flakes. (Same as preceding?) *IAR 1958-9.*

v2.c44.26

**Raigir¹**, Dt Gulbarga. Port-holed cists [4.17.8]. *Jour. Hyderabad Arch. Soc.*, 1916.

v2.c44.27

**Raigir²**, Dt Nalgonda. Early historical site [4.18.10] yielding the Black-and-red Ware and black polished and red polished wares.

v2.c44.28

**Raipara,** Dt Bharuch. Middle (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) and Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) sites. *IAR 1969-70.*

v2.c44.29

**Raipur¹**, Dt Bijnor. PGW [11.14] site. *IAR 1959-60.*

v2.c44.30

**Raipur²**, Dt Bulandshahr. PGW [11.14] and plain grey ware. *IAR 1959-60.*

v2.c44.31

**Raipur³**, Dt Saharanpur. NBPW [11.16] and medieval ware. *IAR 1964-5.*

v2.c44.32

**Raipura,** Dt Bharuch. Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) site.

v2.c44.33

**Raipur-Hingna**, Dt Nagpur. Megalithic [4.17.6] site with stone circles.

v2.c44.34

**Raipur Surjan**, Dt Rohtak. Rang Mahal [11.24] site. *Jour. Haryana Studies*, 3, 1, p. 7.

v2.c44.35

**Rairangpur**, Dt Mayurbhanj. Series II (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]) and microlithic (of unspecified nature) tools. *IAR 1957-8*; *1958-9*.

v2.c44.36

**Rairh** (26°20′; 76°10′), Dt Jaipur, in a valley surrounded by small hill ranges on the e., s. and w. spurs and isolated spurs on the n., where, following the accidental discovery of a hoard of 326 silver punch-marked coins [3.1], excavation was conducted by D.R. Sahni in 1938 and by K.N. Puri during 1938 to 1940. Of the three Pds identified in the excavation the lowest had only a few fragmentary jars and potsherds, the middle one a double-roomed dwelling and the section of a drain and the uppermost three small houses, a series of parallel walls and fragments of drains, including one of clay pipes, the size of the bricks being about 48×2·3× 8 cm and pavements; evidently most of the houses were built of mud, of which no trace exists. Of the 18 ring-wells of the nature of soak-pits, two were filled with layers of inverted *loṭā*-shaped jars.

v2.c44.37

The pottery ranging in date from the 3rd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D. is sometimes decorated with rope and chain pattern and the mark of taurine. There are a few theriomorphic vessels in the form of monkeys. Stone and clay dabbers [16.11] and steatite vessels are known; fragment of a rim of polished Chunar sandstone is an import.

v2.c44.38

There are different types of mother goddess, hand- and mould-made [12.6], some of them in the typical Śuṅga style. Animal toys, including horse and elephant-riders are common.

v2.c44.39

Iron tools and implements—swords, lance-head and spearheads, daggers knives, arrowheads, sickles, axes and adzes,—a bronze needle, stone balls, hones and [16.2] and querns [6.19], bone spikes, shell, bronze and terracotta bangles, beads of diverse material, such as etched carnelian, clay, lead, bronze, glass and crystal, ear ornaments, clay skin-rubbers [18.4], a circular bronze mirror [18.5], ivory, and bone dice [6.7.1] and clay votive tanks [12.11] are the other important finds. Enormous quantities of iron slag [16.9.4] show that the site was a centre of ironsmithy.

v2.c44.40

Apart from the chance discovery of the punch-marked coin hoard mentioned above, four more boards of 99, 132, 535 and 1983 punch-marked coins respectively were found in the excavation. In addition uninscribed cast, Mitra and Mālava coins abound on the surface.

v2.c44.41

A Later exploration has brought to light microliths and a black-and-cream ware (*IAR 1958-9*).

v2.c44.42

Puri, K.N., ed., *Excavations at Rairh*, Jaipur.—A. GHOSH

v2.c44.43

**Raisen**, Dt Raisen. Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] factory site. Also rock-shelters [13]. *IAR 1959-60*; *1966-7*.

v2.c44.44

**Rait**, Dt Kangra. Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] choppers in rolled condition. *IAR 1966-7*.

v2.c44.45

**Raja-Karna-ka-Qila** (29°58′; 76°49′), Dt Kurukshetra, adjacent to the Kurukshetra University Campus and lying in the revenue jurisdiction of Mirzapur village, 3 km w.-s.-w. of Thanesar, the mound rising to a height ranging from 9 to 12 m from the surrounding field level. It was first surveyed by Cunningham (*ASI—AR*, 2, p. 220) and was later excavated by D.B. Spooner (*ASI—AR*, 1921-22; 1922-23). In the fifties Lal reported the discovery of the PGW [11.14] from the site (*AI*, 10 and 11, 1954 & 1955, pp. 141, 150, 151). Further excavation at the site was undertaken on a small scale by the Kurukshetra Univ. (*IAR 1970-1*, p. 15; *1971-2*, p. 23; *1972-3*, p. 12) along with MIRZAPUR. The excavation in the s. part of the mound, rising to a height of 9 m, provides the evidence of 11 structural phases ranging in date from *c.* 400 B.C. to *c.* A.D. 300. The accumulation broadly falls into two Pds which is also confirmed by the excavation in other parts of the mound. In addition the remains of the late medieval period have been brought to light on the n. and w. fringes of the mound.

v2.c44.46

The deposit of Pd I (*c.* 400-100 B.C.) is characterized by the occurrence of grey ware along with red ware. The grey ware is coarser than the PGW and is very rarely painted with simple bands on the rim. On this basis and that of other associated wares and finds the beginning of this Pd can be ascribed to *c.* 400 B.C. The housing activity of the period shows four phases of construction, the structures being made of mud or large-sized mud brick measuring 50 cm in length. The use of burnt bricks is also attested by the occurrence of brickbats. The other finds of the Pd include stone pestles and quern [6.19]; beads of terracotta and semiprecious stones; terracotta animal figurines, bangles and skin rubbers [18.4]; and bone points. Two identical terracotta sealings from the upper levels of the Pd depict four auspicious symbols—*svastika*, snake, nandipada and crescent.

v2.c44.47

The next Pd II, covers a span of about 400 years beginning from *c.* 100 B.C. The Pd can be subdivisible into two Sub-pds on the basis of the ceramics. The late Sub-pd is distinguished by the occurrence of the Red Polished Ware [11.23]. In all seven structural phases have been encountered in this Pd. Generally mud brick measuring 37 × 23 × 7 cm has been used in the construction of houses but in the upper levels burnt brick of the same size is seen. In the upper levels remains of hearths (*chūlhās*) have also been noticed. A room has a mudbrick pillar in its centre for supporting the rafter flanked by beams on either site. A hearth full of potsherds and ashes and a few circular pits cut into a mud-brick platform have also been found. A potter’s oven, later on used as refuse-pit with animal bones and broken pots, has been discovered. The pottery of the Pd, though mostly unpainted, is decorated with various stamped designs, such as *cakra*, *nandipada* and floral motifs. The other finds of the Pd include: early historical copper coins; ornaments comprising beads of semiprecious stones, shell and terracotta; shell bangles; terracotta objects such as human and animal figurines, toy-cart wheels [16.19], dabbers [16.11], blade-sharpeners etc.; a small rod and blade piece of copper; and a variety of household iron and stone objects. The outstanding finds are three clay sealings bearing legends in Brāhmī script of the early centuries of the Christian era.

v2.c44.48

On the n. fringe of the mound have been found remains of the late medieval period, Pd III, with the ruins of structures and a dry well made of *lakhauri* brick seen on the surface itself. Due to this additional deposit the n.-w. part of the mound rises to a height of about 12 m. This Pd is characterized by the use of *lakhauri* brick in the construction of structures and medieval glazed pottery. There are two parallel walls running e.-w. and a revetment on its outside, the inner wall made of clay lumps and measuring 10·10 m in width and the outer wall and the revetment constructed in *lakhauri* brick. The interior of these walls was filled with the earth dug from the adjacent part of the mound and over this filling were constructed *lakhauri*-brick houses. In order to retain the inner filling of earth walls of *lakhauri* brick were also constructed at places. Two such walls have been partially encountered in the excavated area. The whole complex seems to have formed a part of a late medieval fortification. An interesting structure is a *hauz* of *lakhauri* brick plastered with lime. Also belonging to this period is a house built of *lakhauri* brick along with a brick-paved lane.

v2.c44.49

U.V. SINGH

v2.c44.50

**Raja-ki-Chauki**, Dt Mirzapur. Microliths (of unspecified nature).

v2.c44.51

*IAR 1962-3*.

v2.c44.52

**Rajakkad**, Dt Idukki. Megalithic [4.17.10] site.

v2.c44.53

*IAR 1972-3*.

v2.c44.54

**Rajakkalpatti**, Dt Madurai. Megalithic [4.17.9] sites with dolmens.

v2.c44.55

Sewell, R., 1882, *Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency of Madras*, Madras.

v2.c44.56

**Rajalabanda**, Dt Raichur. Chalcolithic [4.14.8] and Megalithic [4.17.8] site with remnant of an ash-mound [14.3] and cairn circles.

v2.c44.57

*AR Hyderabad Dept of Arch.*, 1933-4. *Jour. Geological Survey of Hyderabad*, 3, 4, pp 76-82. Sundara, A., 1975, *Early Chamber Tombs of s. India*, Delhi, p. 78.

v2.c44.58

**Raja-baba-ki-Pahari**, Dt Mirzapur. Microlithic cores, flakes and finished tools were found on the top of the hillock situated on the right bank of the river Garal. See **CHANDRAPRABHA VALLEY**.

v2.c44.59

*IAR 1961-2*. Misra, V.D., 1977, *Some Aspects of Indian Arch.*, Allahabad, p. 79.

v2.c44.60

**Rajadera**, Dt Ranchi. Tools of the Early (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) and Late Stone (Mesolithic [4.5]) Ages were found.

v2.c44.61

*IAR 1965-6*.

v2.c44.62

**Rajagiri**, Dt Pudukkottai. Megalithic [4.17.9] site.

v2.c44.63

*Manual of Pudukkottai State*, 1944, 1, pp. 515-8.

v2.c44.64

**Rajalwada**, Dt Bharuch. Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] and Mesolithic [4.5] site.

v2.c44.65

*IAR 1968-9*.

v2.c44.66

**Rajampeta**, Dt Krishna. Megalithic [4.17.7] site with dolmens.

v2.c44.67

Sewell, R., 1882, *Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency of Madras*, Madras.

v2.c44.68

**Rajanagaram**, Dt Chingleput. Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] site.

v2.c44.69

Sewell, R., 1882, *Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency of Madras*. Madras.

v2.c44.70

**Rajankolur**¹, Dt Gulbarga. Chalcolithic [4.14.8] and Megalithic [4.17.8] site.

v2.c44.71

Paddayya, K., 1973, *Investigation into the Neolithic Culture of Shorapur Doab, s. India*, Leiden, p. 8. Sundara, A., 1975, *Early Chamber Tombs of s. India*, Delhi, pp. 54-5.

v2.c44.72

**Rajankolur**², Dt Raichur. Megalithic [4.17.8] habitation site.

v2.c44.73

*IAR 1965-6*.

v2.c44.74

**Rajapalaiyam**, Dt Chingleput. Early and Middle Stone Age (Lower and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3]) tools.

v2.c44.75

*IAR 1963-4*.

v2.c44.76

**Rajapokhar**, Dt Bhagalpur. Microlithic (of unspecified nature).

v2.c44.77

*IAR 1963-4*.

v2.c44.78

**Rajapur**. See **GANGA VALLEY**.

v2.c44.79

**Raja Sirkap**, Dt Faridkot. Pottery representing the dish and perforated jar, triangular terracotta cakes and steatite disc beads, all recalling the Harappa [4.9] tradition, at Raja Sirkap, 3 km to the s. of Faridkot, also known for its early historical material such as the Rang Mahal Ware [11.24].

v2.c44.80

*IAR 1958-9*. Suraj Bhan, 1975, *Excavation at Mitathal & Other Explorations in the Sutlej-Yamuna Divide*, Kurukshetra, p. 122.

v2.c44.81

**Rajavalliporambu**, Dt Tirunelveli. Megalithic [4.17.9] site.

v2.c44.82

*ASI—AR 1902-3*.

v2.c44.83

**Rajawala**. See **RAGHAVALUM**.

v2.c44.84

**Rajbaridanga**, Dt Murshidabad, on the Bhagirathi, one of the series of mounds near Chiruti, a railway station on the Howrah-Farakka line, about 12 km s.-w. of Murshidabad, the findspot of many stone sculptures and coins, the mounds provisionally identified as Raktamṛttikā monastery seen by Hiuen Tsang in the 7th century near the capital of king Śaśāṅka. Apart from many previous explorations one of the mounds, Rakshasidanga, was excavated in 1929-30 by K.N. Dikshit of the ASI who found Buddhist relics there (*ASI—AR 1929-30*, p. 143). The Dept of Arch., Univ. of Calcutta, extensively excavated Rajbadidanga in 1962 and onwards and brought to light structural remains, largely disturbed by brick-robbing, divisible into three Pds: Pd I, *c.* 2nd-3rd century to 4th-5th century; Pd II, *c.* 5th-6th to 9th-10th century, overlying a deposit of silt; and Pd III, 9th-10th to 12th-13th century. Of these Pd II is rich in cultural equipment and is distinguished by a large number of sealings [3.2], one class of which gives the name of Rakta-mṛttikā-mahā-vihāra, thus confirming the identification of the ruins with the establishment of that name seen by Hiuen Tsang. While no complete plans are available, that the structures belong to a Buddhist establishment is obvious. The pottery of Pd I is relatively crude but that from Pd II is polished and fine. Other objects include terracotta figurines, handmade and moulded, handmade animal figurines coming from Pd I. Ornamental stucco mouldings including human heads come from Pd II. Bangles and rings of copper/bronze and an eight-spoked *cakra* on a floral pedestal of the same material, iron objects like nails, knives, a nutcracker and a chisel and shell bangles constitute the other reported finds. A solid deposit of burnt wheat and rice in a granary is noteworthy.

v2.c44.85

The find of a fragmentary human skull with cut marks below the foundation of a wall of Pd II shows the occasional magico-religious practice of human sacrifice.

v2.c44.86

With the identification of Rajbadidanga with Raktamṛttikā, Śaśāṅka's Karṇasuvarṇa has to be sought for not far away.

v2.c44.87

CHIRUTI has also proved to be a Chalcolithic site [4.14.4].

v2.c44.88

Das, S.R., 1968, *Rajbadidanga: 1962*, Calcutta; 1971, *Arch. Discoveries from Murshidabad*, Calcutta.—A. GHOSH

v2.c44.89

**Rajdhana**, Dt Saharanpur. OCW [11.5] site.

v2.c44.90

*IAR 1964-5.*

v2.c44.91

**Rajdhani**, Dt Gorakhpur. Black-and-red ware (of unspecified nature).

v2.c44.92

*IAR 1963-4.*

v2.c44.93

**Rajendragram**, Dt Shahdol. Middle Stone Age (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] and Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) tools.

v2.c44.94

*IAR 1961-2.*

v2.c44.95

**Rajendram**, Dt Thanjavur. Megalithic Black-and-red Ware [11.15.3].

v2.c44.96

*IAR 1964-5.*

v2.c44.97

**Rajgad**, Dt Ujjain. Site with Kayatha Ware [11.17]. (Same as following?)

v2.c44.98

*Arch. Congress & Seminar, 1972*, Kurukshetra, 1976

v2.c44.99

**Rajgarh**, Dt Ujjain. Chalcolithic site. (Same as preceding?)

v2.c44.100

*IAR 1971-2.*

v2.c44.101

**Rajghat¹**, Dt Guna. Early (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] and Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) tools were found on the Betwa.

v2.c44.102

*IAR 1970-1.*

v2.c44.103

**Rajghat²**, Dt Jhansi. On the left bank of the Shahzad, a tributary of the Betwa, a Neolithic celt was picked up. An unfinished celt and a large number of dolerite pebbles might indicate a factory site.

v2.c44.104

*IAR 1959-60.*

v2.c44.105

**Rajghat³**, Dt Sidhi. Tools of Early and Middle Stone (Lower and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3]) Ages.

v2.c44.106

*IAR 1962-3.*

v2.c44.107

**Rajghat⁴** (25°4'; 83°1'), Dt Varanasi, on the n. outskirts of Varanasi city, near the confluence of the Ganga and Barna (Varuṇā), representing the ancient city of Vārāṇasi, the capital of the kingdom of Kāśi, one of the 16 *mahā-janapadas* in Buddha's time. The antiquity of the city and its continuous history was not confirmed by any archaeological evidence till as late as 1940, when the mound was being despoiled for earth for the remodelling of the adjacent railway station. In the same year a trial excavation of the site was taken up by the ASI (Deva, 1940). The operation, besides revealing a temple hall supported on 12 pillars along with other brick structures, unearthed a store of black pottery now famous as the NBPW [11.16] and other antiquities including terracotta figurines but did not strike the natural soil. A sealing inscribed in Gupta characters with the legend *vārāṇasyadhiṣṭhānādhikaraṇasya* confirmed that the mound of Rajghat represented ancient Vārāṇasī. Much more extensive work was carried out here by A.K. Narain and his colleagues of the Banaras Hindu Univ. during 1960-7, revealing a continuous sequence of six Pds, from before the NBPW to medieval times, which should serve as an index for this region.

v2.c44.108

*Pd I*. Pd I, dated from *c.* 800-200 B.C. is divisible into three Sub-pds. Sub-pd I A was the formative period of the settlement, characterized by the black-and-red ware, [11.6.3], Black-slipped Ware [11.13] and slipped and unslipped red ware. The first two are sometimes painted with simple linear designs in white. Iron implements, tools of bone and large number of terracotta objects like pottery discs, both unperforated and with single perforation [6.7.3], wheels [16.19], balls, ear ornaments, skin-rubbers [18.4] and stoppers were the objects in use. Among stone objects we have balls of different sizes. Beads of terracotta, paste and bone have also been found. No structural remains of any kind have been noticed.

v2.c44.109

The introduction of the NBPW, both plain and painted, marks the beginning of Sub-pd B. The 2m thick deposit of the earlier Sub-pd was topped over by wooden planks, unmistakable traces of which have been noticed at several spots. A cross-section of the wooden remains, despite heavy decomposition, reveals that its thickness was 5 cm. The smooth laying of the wooden planks up to a length of 34 m along the bank of the Ganga leads one to infer that the structure possibly served as a wooden platform during the first structural phase of this Sub-pd. As a result of the periodic rise in the level of the Ganga during floods, this wooden platform fell into disuse and floods became a source of constant danger to the city. It was at this stage (second structural phase) that a massive clay embankment was built as a measure against floods. Subsequently on the n. side of the settlement the inhabitants appear to have constructed a channel or ditch, connecting the Barna and the Ganga so that an effective barrier of water could also be formed on that side of the town. The embankment was built directly over the natural soil. Its vertical extant height is 5·10 m and basal width 19·80 m. The outer slope of the structure is pronounced while the inner one has lost its original contour due to constant weathering as also due to robbing of earth. A series of successive gravel-sandy deposits alternating with silt just over the outer toe of the embankment shows that the embankment was breached several times by floods on the river side. In the third structural phase its height was raised by the addition of a 1·10 m thick mud filling on the top. Associated with this structural phase is a *kachcha* drain passing close to a soak-pit. Remarkably well-preserved impressions of human feet have been noticed over the silted drain, indicating the movement of two persons in opposite directions. The presence of mud plaster with reed impressions in several pits suggests the existence of houses having reed walls plastered with mud.

v2.c44.110

The distinctive feature of Sub-pd C is the emergence of coarse grey ware and the deterioration in the quality of the NBPW. The red ware industry reveals certain new types which does not occur in the preceding Sub-pds. The following new shapes are observed: pear-shaped vase with variants; pan (*karāhī*) with applied loop handles on either side; carinated *hāṇḍī* with featureless rim; dish with sagger base; and shallow bowl with flat base. The black-and-red ware is almost negligible in these deposits. Several terracotta ring-wells [14.15] form the structural remains. The other objects of the preceding Sub-pd continue although their frequency is less and their types restricted. The use of mould for human shapes is evidenced for the first time. In some cases a moulded head joined to a handmade body shows an uncanny animal-like face with partly preserved bust in several cases. The Sub-pd is rich in the yield of several uninscribed copper cast coins [3.1], the earlier ones being from the mid-levels.

v2.c44.111

*Pd II*. In Pd II, covering the two centuries preceding the Christian era, coarse NBPW and coarse grey ware continue in diminishing quantities. A red ware stamped with leaf, floral and *tri-ratna* symbol and often with applied designs is the noteworthy feature of this Pd. The earliest specimen of *makara-mukha* occurs in the late levels of this Pd. Baked bricks are observed for the first time. Each family or a group of families had two rooms having one or two doorways, a vestilule, a domestic well, a bathing platform and an attached baked-brick drain. Sanitary arrangements were sometimes provided by placing soakage jars with perforated bottoms while in other cases the houses had a soak-pit made of terracotta rings. Uninscribed copper cast coins and terracotta seals, some of them bearing names like *Revatimita* in the characters of the 2nd-1st centuries B.C., help to date this Pd.

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*Pd III*. Dated from the beginning of the Christian era to the end of the 3rd century, this Pd is the most prosperous in the history of this site. The houses are all made of baked brick, the size of which averages into two groups, 40×25×5 cm and 39×29×5 cm. A considerable progress is also reflected in the art of clay modelling. The modelling technique of making figurines is a new feature. The elephant, the most favourite one, has been modelled with a graceful forehead, tusk and trunk and is decorated with stamped floral circles, leaves and punched circlets. The female figurines are provided with profuse garments and ornaments like head-dress, necklaces and ear ornaments. The entire range of pottery is of red ware. Among the more important types mention may be made of: the bowl with vertical, sharpened, incurved and obliquely cut rim; lid having vase-shaped central depression; lid-*cum*-bowl; basin with rectangularly collared and splayed rim; *karāhī* with handles; and handled vase. Other distinctive forms are the bottle-necked vessel or sprinkler and spout. Seals and sealings and coins are plentiful. Nearly 400 seals and sealings, both finished and unfinished, palaeographically assignable to the 1st-3rd centuries A.D., have been recovered. One of them bearing the designs of a humped bull and inscribed with the word *Puṣkaraṇa* can be placed somewhere in the second century. Amongst the other names found on the sealings *Hariṣeṇa* is the commonest. Die-struck coins [3.1] are reported for the first time. An Ayodhyā coin bearing the legend *Sivadātasa* and a Kauśāmbī coin with the legend *Navasa* also come from this Pd, the latter from the late level. The find of seals and sealings and coins in such large numbers bespeak the large volume of trade and commerce. Amongst the terracotta objects of daily use mention may be made of feeders, wheels, lids, dabbers [16.11], bullae [6.4], gamesmen [6.17.2], balls, miniature offering lamps, ear ornaments, rattles, skin-rubbers [18.4], cones and stoppers. Beads, pendants, amulets, rings and bangles form an interesting collection.

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*Pd IV*. Dated from c. 300-700, the Pd is noted for a lesser number of but still important structures, the noteworthy of them being two square *kuṇḍas* with widening sides, a brick-edged platform associated with an apsidal structure, a kitchen with an oven and storage jars. An easily identifiable pottery is the Red Polished Ware [11.23] with the long-necked sprinkler as the main type. Sealings bearing respectively the inscriptions *Pakhikula* and *Govindasvāmī* and four gold coins of Candragupta, Kumāragupta I and Skandagupta and other tiny gold objects have been found in a pot. Among other objects is a terracotta human figurine of a deity showing elaborate arrangement for *abhiṣeka* and a unique red-ware handled bowl recovered from the inside of a room. The Pd is particularly rich in the yield of terracotta animal figurines which include those of the bull, elephant, dog, horse, lion, rhinoceros, tortoise, bear, etc. Terracotta human figurines show a remarkable growth of this art. No other age is able to stand comparison to the Pd in the richness of its products both in quality and quantity. The figurines are mostly mould-made and sometimes show traces of paint. Beautiful male and female heads show a variety of fashionable hair-dress.

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*Pd V* (c. 700-1200). Notwithstanding the disturbance caused by extensive pits dug deliberately towards the end of the occupation, several brick walls, foundation pits of buildings and remains of several floorings have been exposed. The discovery of a large number of architectural fragments, *āmalakas*, sculptures, a pedestal with *liṅga*, all lying at the same level, points to the destruction of some Brāhmaṇical structure. Among other finds mention may be made of several objects of terracotta, such as discs with nail-pattern design, a couch-shaped four-legged stool, daggers, toy-cart frames, wheels with hubs and beads of several semi-precious stones.

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Some time in the 13th century the site was in occupation by a set of people whose cultural equipment stood in marked contrast with that of the preceding Pd. The pottery is now altogether different. The red ware is coarse to medium-grained and exclusively wheel-turned and has a dull-red colour. An occasional mixture of sand with the clay either at the luting point of the spout or with a superficial dusting over the entire body before firing gives the vessels some lustre. Amongst the outstanding shapes mention may be made of: the knife-edged bowl, lid either with knife-edged rim or hollow cylindrical knob; sturdy basin with beaked or nail-head rim; vase with either one- or two-mouthed plain spout and distinctive *doṅgā* with a lug handle. Apart from the ordinary red ware which persists throughout the occupation there is glazed ware confined mainly to the middle and late levels. The only forms represented in the glazed ware are the shallow bowl and plate provided with a ring-base. One specimen, however, appears to be a lid. The human figurines show poor skill. Two coins, one of Sūrī king Sher Shāh, and the other of Akbar, come from the mid-level of this period. An East India Company coin has been recorded from the top deposit of this period.

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Altekar, A.S. 1937, *History of Banaras*, Varanasi (for history), Deva, K., 1940, in *Annual Bibliography of Indian History & Indology*, Leiden, 3, pp. xli-li. Havell, E.B., 1905, *Benares, The Sacred City*, London, p. 4. Narain, A K.. & Roy, T.N., 1976. *Excavation at Rajghat*, 1, The Cuttings. Stratifications and Structures. Varanasi; 1977, *Excavations at Rajghat*, 2, The Pottery, Varanasi, Narain, A.K., & Singh, P., 1977. *Excavations at Rajghat*, 3, The Small Finds. Prakash, V., & Roy, T.N., 1965, in *Bull U.P. Hist. Soc.*, 4, pp. 32-8.—T.N. ROY

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**Rajgir** (25°1′; 85°30′), Dt Nalanda, 21 km s.-w. of Biharsharif, the Dt headquarters, a valley completely enclosed by hills which form the n. limits of the Gaya range flanking the s. of the Ganga plains, with two natural passes serving as gates between hills on the n. and s. Its physical position makes it a naturally fortified area and it was understandably the capital of Magadha, s. Bihar, from traditional days to about the 5th century B.C., when the capital was shifted to PĀṬALIPUTRA. Its ancient names were Vasumatī, probably after Vasu the mythical son of Brahmā, Bārhadrathapura, after Bṛhadratha, the progenitor of a traditional dynasty, Girivraja, meaning the hill-girt valley, Kuśāgrapura, after Kuśāgra the successor of Bṛhadratha (though according to Hiuen Tsang it means the city of superior grass) and Rājagṛha, the royal abode *par excellence*. It was the favourite resort of Buddha and Mahāvīra and many are the spots in the valley associated with the life of the former. The names of the hills that surrounded it are given differently in ancient texts and their identifications with their modern counterparts—Vaibhāra, Vipula, Ratna, Chathā, Śaila, Udaya and Sonā—are not in all cases established beyond doubt. On the top of each hill are late medieval Jaina temples. Two groups of hot springs have added to the attraction of the place.

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A continuous and bastioned dry-stone fortification wall with a circuit of about 40 km runs over the top of each hill and there are subsidiary partition walls, perhaps also defensive in character, cutting across the valley. Till the early 20s the fortification wall was regarded as the only extant structural remains of the pre-Mauryan period. In the widest part of the valley starting with the n. gate there is an inner fortification, 8 km in perimeter, of heaped-up earth and rubble, at places in ruins, but sometimes reaching a height of about 10 m. Three well marked gaps in the wall may represent ancient gates.

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Outside the n. gate is New Rājagṛha, believed to have been built by either Bimbisāra or Ajātaśatru, both contemporaries of Buddha. Here too there is a massive earthen wall, now largely missing, with a circuit of about 5 km, the s.-w. part of which is cut off to form a welldefined quadrilateral citadel enclosed by a stone-faced wall, 4·5 to 5·5 m thick and at places 3 m high.

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From the early days of archaeological investigations in India numerous were the explorations at Rajgir, but primarily to identify the ruins of places associated with Buddha. These explorations led to the spotting of the ruins of many a Buddhist religious edifice and place connected with him, chiefly based on the accounts left by the Chinese pilgrims. The work started with A. Cunningham and his assistants (*ASI—AR*, 1, 3 and 8), followed later by J. Marshall (*ASI—AR 1905-6*) and V.H. Jackson (*ibid.*, *1913-4*). It cannot be said that all the identifications proposed by them have been altogether convincing and fresh identifications have now and then been proposed by others (Sen, 1918, 1924; Majumdar, 1949; Law, 1938).

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Of the *stūpas* and associated structures that have been or are believed to have been identified mention may be made of: the *stūpa* of Aśoka to the w. of New Rājagṛha; the Veṇuvana complex between New Rajagṛha and hills comprising the Karaṇḍa tank and the *stūpas* and *vihāra* of Veṇuvana proper; and a *stūpa* ascribed to Ajātaśatru. Excavation at these has not produced any outstanding features; in fact there is hardly anything earlier than post-Gupta times. On the Vaibhāra, the hill to the w. of the n. gate of Old Rājagṛha, there is an excavated Jaina brick temple—the only early Jaina temple at Rajgir—with a central chamber facing e., surrounded by a court which is again flanked on all sides by rows of cells, all originally enshrining images of *tīrthaṅkars*, now mostly missing (R.P. Chanda in *ASI—AR 1925-6*). A Mahādeva temple near by, also of brick, has a *garbha-gṛha* with a flat roof, originally fronted by a *maṇḍapa* with granite pillars. A row of six caves (the number might have been originally seven) in a semicircular bend and a long artificial terrace in front on the n. scarp of the Vaibhāra might be the Saptaparṇi cave where the first Buddhist Council attended by 500 monks was held six months after the death of Buddha. (According to Marshall the Council was held in a specially built hall the ruins of which he identified at the foot of the Vaibhāra further to the w. But all sources refer to Saptaparṇi as a cave and not a hall.) At the s. foot of the Vaibhāra is a group of two rock-cut caves, one of which has fallen and the other has an inscription in characters of about the 4th century A.D., proclaiming that they were excavated by a Jaina monk and contained images of *tīrthaṅkaras*, which carved in low relief, still exist on the interior of the e. face of the wall. According to some, however, the architectural features of the cave betray an earlier date as they resemble those of the Mauryan caves of Barabar and Nagarjuni, not very far off (Saraswati, 1960, p. 503). The second cave, now fallen, was at some stage provided with a portico with a brick pavement and rafters fixed into the outer rock surface.

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Within the valley, about 800 m to the s. of the n. gate, is a unique structure—a hollow brick cylinder about 3 m in diameter and 1 m thick wall with stucco images of Brāhmaṇical divinities in Gupta tradition. The structure was the result of several rebuilds, with resultant rises in the levels marked by concrete floors outside to serve as circumambulation passages; in the course of one of the rebuilds a low door was provided to give access to the interior of the cylinder. Deeper excavation has shown that there are earlier brick walls unconnected with the cylinder. Within the stone compound wall that encloses the complex there are numerous brick altars, one of which held a Mathura sandstone sculpture carved on both sides, one of the inscriptions below a serpent-hooded couple mentioning Maṇi-nāga in Kushan characters. As the *Mahābhārata* and the Pāli texts mention a shrine of Maṇi-nāga or Maṇi-bhadra at Rajgir it is plausible to conjecture that this was the site of the shrine, later on altered to suit other requirements, including a now-demolished Jaina temple at the top. On and near one of the altars in the compound were scattered a large number of pottery jars, some more than 1 m high, with multiple spouts, many of them stuck on or rivetted into them. The spouts are variously shaped like ordinary short ones or like serpent hoods; goblins and animal figures (*ASI—AR 1934-5*). It is said that similar jars are still used in Bengal for the worship of the serpent goddess Manasā. (Recently F.R. Allchin in personal conversation suggested that the jars were used for purposes of distillation. If that were so, all evidence except the pots themselves has now been destroyed.) A Neolithic celt was found in the compound but it must be regarded as a stray find anciently brought from somewhere.

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Further s., about 1 km away, there is a stone enclosure 60 m square, which is supposed to be the jail where Bimbisāra was kept imprisoned by his son Ajātaśatru and from where Bimbisāra could have a view of Buddha when the latter resided on the Gṛdhrakūṭa hill (below). Proceeding e. wards one comes to a site identified with the mango-grove donated by the physician Jīvaka to Buddha. During 1953-5 D.R. Patil of the ASI excavated here (*IAR 1953-4*, p. 9; *1954-5*, p. 16) and unearthed two large elliptical halls with subsidiary rooms within a compound wall, believed to represent Jīvaka's monastery.

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Not far from it a stone-paved road leads up the Chaṭhā-giri where the Gṛdhrakūṭa cave, a favourite resort of Buddha, is located, though the identification has been doubted by some. The area is studded with Buddhist remains of the post-Gupta period.

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Descending the hill and proceeding towards the s. gate of the valley one finds a large sheet of bed rock on which they are deep ruts made of cart-wheels (guage 1·4 m) [16.17] and large number of shell inscriptions, some of them very long.

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In new Rājagṛha, the fort outside in n. gate of the valley, excavation in 1905-6 (*ASI-AR 1905-6*, p. 9) yielded remains of secular buildings in three levels. In one of the houses was ‘granary made of earthen rings’ (ring-wells? [14.15]) and a well of wedge-shaped brick. Also recovered ware: two clay tablets with legends in characters of the 2nd or 1st century B.C., a square copper punch-marked coin and six copper cast coins [3.1] as also medieval coins; some fragments of Buddhist sculptures; and a few terracotta seals bearing the Buddhist creed or symbols.

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Considering the vastness of the site, its known antiquity and political and religious importance, all that has been said above about previous explorations is archaeologically jejune and unsatisfying unlinked with the present-day developments in Indian archaeology. However in 1950 the writer undertook on behalf of the ASI the scraping of a part of the 6 m high section cut by a stream at the foot of the Vaibhāra hill at the outskirts of the inner defences of Old Rājagṛha. Above the natural conglomerate are two deposits of riverine clay with occasional shapeless sherds overlain by a thick pebble bed. Real occupation starts at the site with the appearance of the NBPW [11.16] and black and grey wares of the same shapes as those of the NBPW. The earlier phase of the NBPW-bearing deposits has revealed a previously unknown type of burials. Half-oval pits with elliptical bottoms and short funnels still below have been found dug into the earth. The funnels are filled with clay (in two cases stone blocks are also placed), and the unbaked ‘jars’ thus improvised are filled with bone bits and ashes collected after cremation. In one case a thin slab of stone is used to seal the pit, the slab being again covered with a thin deposit of gravel. The NBPW and the associated wares continue till about the middle half of the height of the section but gradually become coarser. The upper layers show three successive road consolidations. The NBPW gives way to the red ware, some of them of shapes known from other sites to belong to the 2nd century B.C. to the beginning of the Christian era. Of the other objects are a terracotta animal figurine, coeval with the early phase of the NBPW, with circlets, punched on the body, a bird figurine with plumage indicated by incised lines and the torso of female figurine with drapery clinging to the body.

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Occupation at this particular spot can be regarded to have started in the 5th century B.C. or somewhat earlier and continued till the 1st century A.D. But the results of this minor operation need not be taken to be the index of what can be expected all over the vast site.

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A renewed excavation in New Rājagṛha was undertaken by R. Singh of the ASI (*IAR 1961-2*, p. 7; *1962-3*, p. 5), when a trench 66 m long and over 5 m wide, was laid across the s. defences near the s.-w. bastions. Carried down to a depth of 18 m below the extant top of the defences, the excavation has revealed three Pds with subdivisions in the latter two. The lowest is essentially non-occupational with only rare shapeless red-ware sherds; its top however has stone foundations and ashy deposits, with the NBPW and associated red ware, some pieces with black-painted linear designs, terracotta human figurines, a hoard of 14 punch-marked coins and fragment of a steatite amulet [12.1] with three circles each enclosing three symbols and three vertical lines on the reverse. The mud rampart of Pd II A rests over a deposit of burnt material which caused the destruction of Pd I. Built over a basal deposit of yellowish-brown mud the main core of the rampart has an extant height of 7·31 m retained on the s. side by a battered brick wall. The base of the rampart is available to a width of 40·53 m but on the n. side it is less. There is a moat on the outer side. The pottery in the core of the rampart is the same as in Pd I. In Pd II B a brick fortification was raised on the extant top of the mud rampart.

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In the next Pd, III A, a deposit of earth and ashes, with the same pottery as of Pd II A, glass beads and iron objects, was laid on the debris of the brick fortification. In Pd III B a 33·5 m wide wall of brickbats, available to a height of 38 cm, was raised on the remains of Pd III A. The brick walls of the s.-w. bastion have revealed structures of three phases of construction. In the habitation area within the fort the same sequence of three Pds has been noticed.

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The ¹⁴C dates of samples from the pre-rampart deposit are 265±105 and 260±105 B.C.

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As the bastioned stone fortification seen elsewhere on the s. and e. sides of the fort is not available at this spot a cutting was made across the s. defences near its s.-e. corner. Here also three Pds have been met with. Pd I, a 3 m thick deposit over the natural soil, has yielded the NBPW with a few rubble walls and a double row of storage jars in the upper layers. A remarkable find is a carved steatite plaque in three vertical compartments, each with a couple in archaic style. Over the debris is the mud rampart of Pd II which in turn supports the stone fortification of Pd III.

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More recent exploration has brought to light Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] tools in gravel bed of the Banganga (*IAR 1967-8*). Also is reported a Neolithic [4.6] celt from somewhere in the valley (*IAR 1963-4*).

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Beal, S., 1884, *Buddhist Records of the W. World*, London, 2. Cunningham, A., 1924, ed. Majumdar-Sastri, *Ancient Geography of India*, 1924. Kuraishi, M.H., & Ghosh, A., 1939 and subsequent eds., *Rajgir*, Delhi and New Delhi. Law, B.C., 1938, *Rājagṛha in Ancient Literature*, Mem. ASI, 58. Legge, J., 1886, *Travels of Fa-hien*, Oxford. Majumdar, R.C., 1949, in *Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Letters*, 15, pp.

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65-79. Saraswati, S.K., 1960, in Majumdar, R.C., and Pusalker, A.D., ed., *Age of Imperial Unity*, Bombay. Sen, D.N., 1918, in *Jour. Bihar & Orissa Res. Soc.*, 4; 1924, *Rajgir & its Neighbourhood*, Patna. Stein, A., 1901, in *Indian Antiquary*, 30. Watters, T., 1905, *On Yuan Chwang's Travels*, London, 2.—A. GHOSH

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**Rajim**, Dt Raipur. Pottery and microliths (both of unspecified nature). *IAR 1968-9.*

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**Rajini Devi**, Dt Hoshiarpur. Site yielding grey ware without painting,-plain red and black-painted red wares of the early period [4.18.1], medieval pottery, terracotta figurines, broken sculptures and coins. *IAR 1969-70.*

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**Rajkot**¹, Dt Rajkot. Early historical [4.18.2] site. *IAR 1958-9.*

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**Rajkot**², Dt Rajkot. Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] site. *IAR 1970-1.*

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**Rajnagar**, Dt Chhatarpur. Middle (Middle Palaeolithic [4.2]) and Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) tools. *IAR 1961-2.*

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**Rajnota**, Dt Jaipur. OCW [11.5], PGW [11.14], black-and-red ware and red ware site. *IAR 1972-3.*

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**Rajoli**, Dt Chanda. Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) tools. *IAR 1961-2.*

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**Rajota**, Dt Ujjain. A large mound 29 km w. of Ujjain with black-and-red, burnished red and black and late painted wares. On the bank of the Chambal, 5 km to the n. of Rajota, a Chalcolithic [4.14.5] site with painted ware was found. *IAR 1959-60.*

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**Rajpalli**, Dt Chanda. Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) tools. *IAR 1961-2.*

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**Rajpipla**, Dt Bhavnagar. Of the nine sites, Rajpipla-1 and -7 are Harappa [4.9] sites; Rajpipla-2 is of Middle Stone Age (Middle Palaeolithic [4.3]); Rajpipla-3 and -4 are early historical [4.18.2]; Rajpipla-6, -8 and -9 are Harappa and early historical; while Rajpipla-5 is of unspecified nature. *IAR 1971-2.*

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**Rajpur**, Dt Bastar. Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] site on the Narangi river. *Madhya Pradesh Sandesh*, 13 June 1970, p. 10.

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**Rajpura**¹, Dt Bharuch. Late Stone Age (Mesolithic [4.5]) site. *IAR 1965-6.*

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**Rajpura**², Dt Jullundur. Śuṅga-Kushan and medieval glazed ware. *IAR 1963-4.*

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**Rajpuri**, Dt Valsad. Early Stone Age (Lower Palaeolithic [4.2]) site. *IAR 1964-5.*

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**Rajpur Parsu**, **Rajpur Khadar** (29°08'; 78°09'), Dt Bijnor, 2 km e. of the present bed of the Ganga, almost due e. of HASTINĀPURA. A hoard of 16 copper objects consisting of nine flat celts, six harpoons and one bar-celt was found here in about 1895-6 and is now deposited in the State Museum, Lucknow. (Smith, 1905). With a view to linking the copper objects with a cultural horizon yielding other associated antiquities, particularly pottery, B.B. Lal of the ASI located the findspot of the Copper Hoard [4.11] with the help of an octogenarian of the village in a mango garden on the periphery of a 2 m high small mound. He accordingly excavated five trenches here, one in the mango garden and four on the mound. He did not come across any copper object but an ill-fired, thick, ochrous ware came from the lower levels of the trenches. The ware compares well with the one obtained from BISAULI and HASTINĀPURA Pd I. Although there is no positive evidence that the Copper Hoard and this pottery are products of the same culture, it is believed that this is within the bounds of likelihood. Lal, B.B., 1951, in *AI*, 7, pp. 24-7. Smith, V.A., 1905, in *Indian Antiquary*, 34, pp. 231, 234.—Y.D. SHARMA

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**Rajputan**, Dt Amritsar. Remains of the early historical period [4.18.1] of *c.* 1st-2nd century A.D., including black-painted red ware and the Red Polished Ware [11.23]. *IAR 1963-4.*

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**Rajrappa**, Dt Hazaribagh. Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] handaxes. *IAR 1960-1.*

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**Rajua-Bahadurpur**, Dt Gurdaspur. Early historical [4.18.1] remains. See ACHAL-SAHEB. *IAR 1961-2.*

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**Rajulabanda**, Dt Raichur. Ash-mound [14.3]. Sundara, A., 1971, in *Prof. Nilakanta Sastri Felicitation Vol.*, Madras.

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**Rajupur**, Dt Saharanpur. Coarse grey and medieval glazed wares. *IAR 1963-4.*

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**Rajur**, Dt Dharwar. Megalithic [4.17.8] urn burial site. *IAR 1964-5.*

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**Rajura**, Dt Chanda. Microliths (of unspecified nature). *IAR 1960-1.*

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**Rajvadi** (73°27'; 18°5'), Dt Kolaba, 3 km n.-e. of MAHAD on the Savitri river. A cliff section on the right bank near the bridge shows two terraces. A few choppers [4.2] were obtained from the pebble bed of the higher terrace, while a few microliths (of unspecified nature) were picked up from the lateritic gravel. *Arch. Congress & Seminar, 1970*, Nagpur, 1972.

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**Rakasgi**, Dt Bijapur. Early historical [4.18.11] remains. *IAR 1961-2.*

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**Rakasvada**, Dt Dhule. Microliths associated with ochre-coloured pottery. See DHAMDAI. *IAR 1957-8.*

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**Rakhamgeri**, Dt Gulbarga. Megalithic alignment and cairn circles [4.17.8], Megalithic habitation site and early historical [4.18.11] site. IAR 1963-4. Sundara, A., 1975, *Early Chamber Tombs of s. India*, Delhi, pp. 81-6.

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**Rakha Mines.** See DHALBHUM.

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**Rakhi Garhi, Rakhi Shahpur** (29°16′; 76°10′), Dt Hissar, in the DṚṢADVATĪ (Chitang) valley. The extensive ruins spread over an area with a circumference of 2 km are partly covered by the twin villages of Rakhi Shahpur and Rakhi Khas, the latter popularly called Rakhi Garhi. The main group of mounds, preserved to a maximum height of 17 m, suggests a dichotomous plan of the Harappa pattern [4.9]. The lower w. mound reveals signs of a huge mud brick platform on the surface. The higher mound on the e. also pertains to the Harappa age. A smaller mound lying somewhat away from the main site in the n.-w. is characterized by the late SISWAL ceramic complex.

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The relics and pottery from the site can be broadly classified into two periods, viz. KALIBANGAN I/SOTHI/SISWAL A [11.2] and Harappa [11.3]. In the former ware picked up from below the Harappa deposits in a rain gully and on the surface of the w. mound are represented all the six fabrics recognized in KALIBANGAN I including the bichrome painted (Fabric A), rusticated (Fabric B) and sturdy incised (Fabric D) wares. Besides, terracotta disc missiles, bangles and biconical beads are also found.

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The Harappa settlement is marked by the extensive layout on a typical twin-mound plan. In the w. mound are exposed to a height of about 5 m the remnants of a huge mud or burnt-brick platform. In the e. mound can be noticed several structures of mud and burnt brick of the characteristic Harappa size (1:2:4 ratio) [14.6.1] and a street metalled with burnt clay nodules. The pottery comprises the classical Harappa shapes such as the storage jar, perforated jar, S-shaped vase, dish-on-stand, basin, goblet, beaker, vase, handled cup, etc. and painted designs such as *pipal* leaf and intersecting circles painted in black over red slip and incised cord- and nail-marks. The smaller finds include terracotta triangular cakes [6.27], sling balls, spindle whorls [6.25], a chess-board, a clay tablet inscribed with Indus letters [20.4.1], chert blades, steatite disc beads [10.1], faïence beads and bangles [10.3.5], and carnelian and agate beads.

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The late Harappa occupation is seemingly superficial and can be distinguished mainly by the ceramic shapes typical of MITATHAL II B or BARA pottery. These types include the storage-jar and dish-on-stand having an evolved form and vase with flanged rim, etc.

v2.c44.167

The extensive size and the strategic location of the site unmistakably point to the unique significance of the settlement, one of the largest Harappa settlement in present-day India, perhaps a provincial capital of the culture, with a pre-Harappa and post-Harappa occupation. Suraj Bhan, 1975, *Excavation at Mitathal & Other Explorations in the Sutely-Yamuna Divide*, Kurukshetra, p. 124.—SURAJ BHAN

v2.c44.168

**Rakshas Bhuvan.** See GODAVARI VALLEY.

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