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The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c11: Chapter VII. The Last Life and Enlightenment

The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c11

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Contents

Chapter VII. The Last Life and Enlightenment

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The life of Gautama Buddha is the basis and starting-point of all the doctrines and theories of Buddhism. The supposed events of his past lives as a *bodhisattva* have been related in the *avadānas* (stories) devoted to that inspiring theme. The doctrine of a *bodhisattva's* career was also promulgated in order to explain and interpret the historic fact of his marvellous virtue and wisdom. In Buddhist philosophy and history, all roads lead to Gautama Buddha. The real and imaginary important incidents of his life have been regarded as the necessary experiences of all advanced *bodhisattvas* in their last lives, during which they attain Enlightenment. All such *bodhisattvas* must be born and must live in the same manner. Gautama Buddha's life is regarded as a concrete instance of the general law relating to a *bodhisattva's* last earthly existence, which he at last reaches after three *asaṅkhyeyas* of aeons.

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The biography of Gautama Buddha is inextricably mingled with myth and legend. Exaggerated reverence for the Teacher and lack of scientific education have led to enormous accretions of picturesque mythology, which render it difficult to separate fact from fiction. We shall relate such relevant facts and incidents as have contributed to the development of the general *bodhisattva* doctrine. They are narrated in the *Mahā-vastu*, the *Lal. V.*, the *Buddha-carita* and the *Avadāna-kalpa-latā*. Similar details are given in the *Mtu.* with reference to a Buddha, named Dīpaṅkara (i, 197 ff.). It may not be out of place to indicate the salient features of the legend of Gautama Buddha, which have some bearing on our subject.

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(1) The *bodhisattva* descends from a heaven of his own accord and selects his mother. His birth is therefore not due to the law of *karma*.

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(2) His reputed father has no connection with his birth. It is a case of "parthenogenesis," and not of "virgin birth", as E. J. Thomas has conclusively proved ("Buddha": pp. 237 ff.).

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(3) He is not soiled by impure elements of any kind at his birth, which is also attended with many other marvels.

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(4) He is a Superman even in childhood. He is a highly cultured person, excelling in all physical and intellectual accomplishments.

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(5) He is free from passion, but he marries in order to conform to the ways of the world and set a good example. His son is born without any sensual indulgence on his part.

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(6) He practises severe penance as an ascetic from similar motives.

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(7) He meets Māra, the *deva* of Desire, in a terrific combat, from which he emerges victorious, and then attains Enlightenment.

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(8) All through his life, he is helped, served, encouraged and supported by the *devas* of the different heavens, who also rejoice at his success in winning *bodhi*.

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The birth of Vipassin and of Gautama Buddha is attended with wonders and miracles even according to the Pāli canon (cf. *Dīgha*, ii, 12 ff. *Mahāpadāna-sutta*.—*Majjhima*, iii, 118 ff. *Acchariy-abbhuta-dhamma-sutta*). We shall deal with the legend according to the Sanskrit treatises.

I. Birth

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The individual, who is known as Gautama Buddha, is said to have taken the vow of becoming a Buddha many æons before his birth as the historic Teacher. There are several versions of the story. He is most frequently said to have been a *brahmin*, Sumedha or Megha, who took the vow in presence of a Buddha, named Dīpaṅkara.¹ But the *Mtu.* also gives his name as Abhiya, a monk; and the Buddha, who predicted his future Enlightenment, was Sarvābhibhū.² The same treatise also contains another account, according to which he was a monarch of the four *dvīpas* (islands); and the Buddha, who gave him the *vyākaraṇa*, was Samitāvin.³ He is also said to have been a *śreṣṭhin* (chief of a guild), and the Buddha’s name was Çākyamuni.⁴ According to Kṣemendra, he first conceived the Thought of Enlightenment when he was a king, named Prabhāsa.⁵ It is not possible to reconcile these conflicting accounts. It may be inferred that several traditional names were known.

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Since that remote period, he was reborn many times as a human being or an animal, till he appeared on earth as Prince Viçvantara. When that prince dies, he is reborn as a *deva* in the Tuṣita heaven, whence the *bodhisattva* again descends to the earth. He lives there with the *devas*, who are supposed to be his disciples and admirers. It is announced that the time is ripe for the *bodhisattva*’s rebirth for the attainment of *bodhi*, as the age of men is about a hundred years and they know what is meant by pain, old age and death. According to Buddhist cosmogony, a Buddha should not be born at the beginning of a great aeon, when men live very long, nor at the end of a world-cycle, when their lives are very short. In both cases, they would be unable to profit by a Buddha’s teaching, which deals with pain, old age and death. The *bodhisattva*, having decided to be born, then determines the continent, the country or region, the family and the mother.⁶ All the *devas* take part in these deliberations: this is a curious feature of the legend. It is agreed that the *bodhisattva* should be born in India (*Jambu-dvīpa*), in the region of *Madhyadeça* (Middle Country), and in the family of the *Çākyas* of Kapilavastu. The general law is here stated that a *bodhisattva* is born only in the two higher castes of the *brahmins* or the *kṣatriyas*, according as one or the other of these is predominant.

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The mention of the *brahmin* caste is due to the influence of Hinduism, as Gautama Buddha was born in a *kṣatriya* family, and he attached no importance to the pretensions of the *brahmins*. The family must also possess social influence and certain moral qualifications. It must have sixty or sixty-four qualities, e.g. knowledge, character, courage, piety, fame, etc. The woman, who is to be the *bodhisattva*’s mother, must be endowed with beauty and virtue, and must not have given birth to a child before. She must have thirty-two admirable qualities.⁷ Queen Māyā, wife of King Çuddhodana of Kapilavastu, is said to be faultless, tender-hearted, sweet in speech, gentle, good-tempered, modest, conscientious, steadfast, honest, charitable, and free from “the net of women’s failings”.⁸ Here the legend states that Buddha’s father was a king; but he was only a wealthy nobleman, belonging to “an unbroken *kṣatriya* family, rich, of great wealth, of great possessions”, as the earliest Pāli accounts describe him.⁹ Royalty was conferred on Buddha’s parents in order to heighten the moral effect of his Renunciation. When the initial preparations in the Tuṣita heaven are thus completed, the Queen suddenly conceives an aversion to sensual pleasure and asks her husband to be allowed to live quietly in a secluded part of the palace. Celestial nymphs hasten to serve and honour her with music and flowers.

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She dreams that a white elephant with six tusks has entered her body.¹⁰ On the same night, the *bodhisattva* descends as a white elephant with six tusks and enters her womb on the right side. It was the full-moon night of the month of *Vaiçākha* (April-May). He previously appoints the *bodhisattva* Maitreya as the teacher of the *Tuṣita* heaven. Here a difficult point in the legend must be explained, if it is possible to do so. According to the older account, the Queen only sees the white elephant in a dream; but the *bodhisattva* is also supposed to have assumed the form of a white elephant. The latter idea is rather absurd, as the *bodhisattva* is visible in the mother's womb as a human child and not as a white elephant, as we learn further on. There is a birth-story (*jātaka*) of a six-tusked elephant, but it throws no light on this particular point in the legend (*Jātaka*, v, pp. 36-7). Kṣemendra mentions the dream-elephant, but is silent about the six tusks. He describes Indra's elephant, *Airāvata*, as six-tusked. In the *Mtu.*, Yaçoda is also changed into a six-tusked elephant.¹¹ Elephants with six tusks must be supposed to be very rare (if not altogether non-existent); and the *bodhisattva* may be compared to such an animal, which is a symbol of extreme rarity and excellence. A universal monarch is said to possess a rare elephant. H. Kern thinks that it is a symbol of lightning (SBE, vol. xxi, p. 434, note). But E.

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Senart identifies it with the clouds, which envelop the sun. He says: “Il est bien évident que cet Éléphant divin’ (*āsuro hastin*) a une certaine signification mythologique, et s’il exprime à la fois et resume la force ou la splendeur du soma, du soleil et du feu, aucune conception n’en saurait mieux rendre compte que celle du nuage enveloppant le soleil.”¹² But the *bodhisattva* is not born covered with the elephant: he is the elephant. E. Senart also refers to a hymn of the *Atharva-veda* (iii, 22; page 43), in which the “splendour of the elephant” is mentioned (*hasti-varcasam prathatām*, etc.). But it is a far cry from the *Atharva-veda* to the *Lal. V.* The “six tusks” are also not accounted for according to E. Senart’s hypothesis. E. Windisch has pointed out that the elephant was a symbol of royalty, and he also connects the elephant of this legend with the *Airāvata* of Hindu mythology. He says: “Der Elefant im Traume deutet zunächst auf die Königswürde hin. . . . In sofern aber der Elefant den *bodhisattva* bedeutet, musste er als der herrlichste, höchste Elefant erscheinen. Als solcher galt den Brahmanen *Indra’s* Elefant : nach diesem Vorbilde, das Vorbild noch übertreffend, wurde der *bodhisattva*-Elefant ausgemalt . . . . Aber damit ist nicht gesagt dass das eine identisch ist mit dem andern . . . .

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In dem Traume der Geburtslegende deutet die Weisse Silberfarbe symbolisch die Reinheit des *bodhisattva* an.” 13 A passage in the *Mahābhārata* speaks of a brahmin, who falls into a well or pit in a forest and sees an elephant with six mouths (*ṣaḍ-vaktraṃ kṛṣṇa-cabalam . . . . mahā-gajam.*” *Mahābhārata*. *Strī-parvan*, xi, 5, 14-15; Bombay Edition, vol v, p. 6). Vidura explains to Dhṛtarāṣṭra that the forest in that parable represents transmigratory existence in the world (*saṃsāra*); the well is the human body; the elephant is the year; and the six faces are the six seasons (xi, 6, 10-11; vol. v, p. 7). It may be inferred that the six-tusked elephant is the sun, whose course in the sky is run during a year with six seasons. The *Mahābhārata* speaks of the elephant as “dark”, and does not speak of tusks. The white colour is regarded as auspicious. The white elephant of the Buddha-legend may have affinities with both *Airāvata* and the solar myth. Angelo de Gubernatis says: “The whole mythical history of the elephant is confined to India. . . . The elephant generally represents the sun, as it shuts itself up in the cloud or the darkness, or comes out of it, shooting forth rays of light or flashes of lightning.” 14 A. B. Keith suggests a different explanation.

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He says: “The most plausible hypothesis is to refer the dream to the Indian belief that a child before its conception already exists in an intermediate condition, as follows naturally from the doctrine of rebirth, and to find that the six tusks of the elephant arise from a misunderstanding of a phrase denoting ‘one who has the six organs of sense under control’.” 15 But this suggestion is more ingenious than convincing.

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¹⁰ [Note not present on page]

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¹¹ [Note not present on page]

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¹² [Note not present on page]

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To proceed with the story. Queen Māyā experiences the serene joy that usually comes of rapt Concentration. On waking, she goes to a grove of *aṣoka*-trees and sends for the king, who is at first unable to enter the place. The *devas* inform him of what has transpired, and Māyā tells him the dream. The *brahmins*, who are called to interpret the dream, prophesy that a son will be born to the king. He will become a universal monarch or a Buddha. The *bodhisattva* is not contaminated with bile, phlegm, blood or any impure secretions of the malodorous body during the entire pre-natal period. He sits in the womb in the cross-legged posture and is surrounded by a beautiful rectangular canopy, which has four pillars and a seat for the *bodhisattva*.16

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This jewelled structure (*ratna-vyūha*) is carried off to the heaven of Brahmā after the *bodhisattva*’s birth. Māyā can see the *bodhisattva* seated in her womb. This curious conceit owes its origin to the idea that the human body is not altogether pure, as it exudes certain foul and filthy fluids. Queen Māyā enjoys excellent health, and her mind is free from all evil dreams, thoughts and inclinations. She can heal the sick and confer happiness on all creatures. The *devas* honour the miniature *bodhisattva* with music and flowers. All these marvels of the pre-natal period are due to the *ṛddhi* (wonder-working Power) of the *bodhisattva* himself.

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Queen Māyā bears the *bodhisattva* for ten months. This general law applies to all *bodhisattvas*: their pre-natal period is ten months. When the time comes for her to be delivered, she goes to the Lumbinī grove with her companions. Invisible *devas* follow her. She takes hold of a branch of a *plakṣa*-tree and looks at the sky. The *bodhisattva* is then born from her right side, which remains uninjured, as his body is mind-made.¹⁷ He is serene and self-possessed, and is quite uncontaminated with impure substances of any kind. Indra and Brahmā take him in their hands and wrap him in fine silk, which is not soiled at all. All these incidents are in conformity with the general law that such a *bodhisattva*’s mother is delivered in a standing position, and that his body is perfectly clean and is first taken in the hands of the *devas*, and not of human beings.

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Although the *bodhisattva*’s body is clean, yet he gets a bath of hot and cold water, which is provided by the *devas*. He then puts his feet on the ground, and a lotus grows out of the earth. A white umbrella is held over him. He stands in the lotus and looks in all directions. Then he takes seven steps in each of the six directions, and utters such exclamations as the following:— “I am the best and highest being in the whole world. This is my last existence.

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“I will put an end to birth, old age, death and pain. I shall destroy Māra and his army,” etc.¹⁸ At the same time, celestial music, flowers, rain and winds appear to mark the auspicious event of the *bodhisattva*’s birth. A great and wonderful light spreads over the entire universe and makes all living beings happy and kind. The blind see, the deaf hear, the wicked love righteous ways, and even the pains of the sufferers in the purgatories are assuaged. But an earthquake is also a necessary incident on such an occasion.¹⁹ A Buddha’s life is marked and punctuated with six “earthquakes”: the earth shakes and trembles when he is conceived, when he is born, when he attains Enlightenment, when he begins to preach, when he decides to pass away soon (instead of living for an aeon), and when he dies. Such a *bodhisattva*’s mother dies seven days after his birth, because she is so holy that she may not continue to live as an ordinary wife, or because she must be spared the pain of witnessing her son’s Renunciation later on.²⁰ This general law has of course been deduced from the fact of the death of Gautama Buddha’s mother. Several other beings, who are subsequently associated with Gautama Buddha’s life, are born on the same day, viz. his wife, his charioteer Chandaka, the horse Kaṇṭhaka, and many other princes, servants and horses.

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In this account of the birth of the *bodhisattva*, the seven steps and the earthquake seem to have a certain symbolic significance. E. Senart explains even Māyā as a symbolic name, but we need not go so far.²¹ He also attaches much importance to the trees in the Lumbinī grove, as he rightly believes that the legend has much in common with the myth of the birth of Apollo at Delos. He says: “Je veux parler de la légende de Delos sur la naissance d’Apollon; il est aussi impossible d’en nier que d’en expliquer par le hasard l’étonnante conformité avec notre scène, . . . . une scène toute mythologique, remontant à une époque réculée du developpement légendaire.”²² Apollo also walks about after birth and declares that he must proclaim the will of Zeus; but it is difficult to conceive how the Greek myth could have become known in India before the Christian era.²³ It does not belong to the mythology of the Aryans before the dispersion of the tribes, and nothing exactly like it is found in the *Vedas*. The idea of being born from the mother’s side is referred to in a hymn of the *Ṛgveda* (iv, 18.1, *ayaṃ panthā anuvittaḥ purāṇo*, etc., vol. iii, page 100). It may appear rather strange that an earthquake should mark certain auspicious events. We associate an earthquake with loss of life and property, but it is probable that the Buddhists meant only a slight tremor as a gesture of delight and approval on the part of the *devatā* of the earth. E. Senart and E.

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Windisch do not offer any suggestion with regard to the earthquake. The earth is regarded as a goddess in the mythology of many races. L. Spence says: “The earth was personalized by early man, who regarded it as the parent of all things dwelling thereon. . . . Early man seems to have regarded it as his mother. . . . The Earth-Mother, then, would be practically universal. We should expect to find her everywhere, and indeed we do. In the Vedic hymns, the earth is the bride of Dyaus; in Greece she was known as Gaea . . . In Mexico more than one god was connected with the earth.” 24 But earthquakes are seldom mentioned in the myths of the world, and they are usually considered to be calamities due to the action of demons. P. Ehrenreich says: “Erdbeben werden bekanntlich fast überall auf die Bewegungen fabelhafter dämonischer oder tierischer Erdträger zurückgeführt, sei es, dass diese ihren Unwillen äussern oder nur ihre unbequeme Stellung verändern wollen. . . In Afrika gelten auch rein animistische oder manistische Agenzien als Ursache der Erschütterung. Es sind die Seelen mächtiger Häuptlinge, die auch den Charakter von Lokaldämonen annehmen können.” 25 But these earthquakes in Buddhist mythology are connected with auspicious events like the conception and birth of a Buddha. It may therefore be permissible to venture on the tentative explanation that has been suggested above. As regards the seven steps, these are certainly of a symbolic character.

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In a Hindu marriage ceremony, the bride and the bridegroom take seven steps together round the sacred fire.26 The Mahā-vastu offers the prosaic explanation that the bodhisattva is tired of sitting in the womb for a long time and therefore walks about. After the seventh step, the devas take hold of him.27 The Buddha-carita gives us a better clue, as it compares the bodhisattva to the stars of the constellation “Seven Ṛṣis”.28 E. Windisch does not attach much importance to this passage, as he says: “Aus diesem Vergleiche etwa zu schliessen, dass Buddha astraler Natur sei, halte ich für logisch unberechtigt.” 29 E. Senart is silent on this point. It may be suggested that the seven steps perhaps correspond to the seven “planets”, which give their names to the days of the week. The bodhisattva’s movements bear some relation to the solar system as conceived by the ancient world. The number Seven occurs frequently in mythology. A choir of swans flew seven times round Delos after the birth of Apollo. Seven miraculous trees flourished on the Kuen Lün mountains in China.30

II. The Superman

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As a child, boy and youth, the bodhisattva is a prodigy of strength, skill and erudition. The Lal. V. also relates that the images of the devas fall down before him on the occasion of his visit to the temple.³¹ This incident is intended to prove the superiority of the *bodhisattva* to the devas and of Buddhism to Hinduism. When the *bodhisattva* is taken to the school, it is found that he knows as many as sixty-four languages and scripts.³² At a later period, he shows that he is well-versed in all the arts and sciences: archery, swimming, writing, arithmetic, poetry, grammar, painting, drama, music, dancing, history and the technical crafts.³³ The *bodhisattva* is thus represented as a veritable Superman, who possesses the most varied intellectual accomplishments. He has finished the most complete course of liberal education that can be imagined. Aristotle, Plato, Albertus Magnus, Leonardo de Vinci, Mezzofanti, Goethe and other versatile polymaths pale into insignificance in comparison with this *bodhisattva*. The Buddhist writers were indebted to the portraits of the heroes of the *Rāmāyaṇa* and the *Mahābhārata* for this ideal of a perfectly cultured and educated man. The Pāli canon does not speak much of Buddha's knowledge of the arts and sciences. According to the *Lal. V.*, a *bodhisattva* in his last existence is a master of all profane learning. He is also endowed with beauty, strength and physical fitness. His voice is sweet and deep: his body shines like gold, or even more than gold.³⁴ He is expert in all the sports and exercises of manly youths. He is so strong that he can send a dead elephant flying over the walls of the town by pushing it with his toe.³⁵ He excels all athletes in running, wrestling, swimming and other sports. He wins a wrestling match against five hundred young men.³⁶ He surpasses even Arjuna's exploits in archery. His body is not only lovely and powerful, but is also marked by the thirty-two principal signs of the *mahāpuruṣa* (great man) and his eighty secondary or minor characteristics. They are due to his self-control in previous lives (*Sam. Rā.*, fol. 193a, 1). The thirty-two principal marks are as follows (according to the *Lal. V.*)³⁷:

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(1) His head is like a cap in shape (or like a royal turban). E. Burnouf interprets the term *uṣṇīṣa-śīrṣa* as meaning "having a bump on the head"³⁸ (Pāli: *uṇhīsa-sīso*. *sahaj-oṣṇīṣa-mastakaḥ*; Kṣemendra, i, 671). E. Senart compares the *uṣṇīṣa* to the *kaparda* of Çiva and Rudra, and says: "Toutefois, parmi les interprétations auxquelles il donne lieu, l'une fait de l'*uṣṇīṣa* une disposition particulière de la chevelure, ramenée sur le sommet de la tête."

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(2) His hair turns towards the right in locks, which are dark-blue like a peacock’s tail or mixed collyrium. The *M. Vy.* and *Dh. S.* say nothing about the colour of the hair.

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(3) His forehead is even and broad.

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(4) Between his eyebrows there is white hair, which has the lustre of snow and silver (*ūrṇā*. Pāli : *uṇṇā*). E. Senart compares the *ūrṇā* to the white hair on the breast of *Viṣṇu* and *Kṛṣṇa*, to the eyebrows of Zeus, the third eye of *Çiva*, etc.39 But his analogies are generally superficial. It is a curious fact that the *M. Vy.* gives *ūrṇā-keçaḥ* (having woolly hair?). But Csoma’s list has *ūrṇā-koça* (“hair of treasure” on the forehead). This is incorrect, as Tibetan *spu* means “hair” (Tib. Dicy., 798).

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(5) His eyelashes are like a cow’s (i.e. “completely surrounding the eyes, thick like a black cow’s”; or, “bright and soft like a new-born red calf’s”).

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(6) The pupils of his eyes are very dark (*abhinīla*).

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(7) He has forty teeth, which are even (or, “of equal size”).

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(8) There are no gaps or interstices between one tooth and another (*avirala-danta*. Pāli : *avivara*).

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(9) He has white teeth (or “very white”).

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(10) He has an excellent voice (*brahma-svara*).

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(11) His sense of taste is very acute and keen (*rasa-rasāgratā*).40 E. Senart points out that *Agni* in the *Ṛgveda* has many teeth and tongues. E. Burnouf explains: “Il a la supériorité du goût des saveurs” (“Lotus”, p. 567).

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(12) His tongue is large and slender (*prabhūta-tanu-jihva*).

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(13) His jaw is like a lion’s. E. Senart refers to the epithet of *Agni* in the *Ṛgveda*.

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(14) He has evenly-rounded shoulders. (*Susamvṛtta* has also been rendered as “even”, “symmetrical,” “equally rounded.” Pāli : *samavattakkhandho.*) *Skandha* refers to “the exterior of the whole vocal apparatus,” and not merely to the trunk or the shoulders. It has also been translated as “bust”. E. Foucaux translates: “le bras bien arrondi.”

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(15) He has seven convex surfaces or prominences. (*sapt-otsada, sapt-occhada*; i.e. the backs of the four limbs, the shoulders and the trunk are well fleshed. Pāli : *sattussado.*) Csoma translates: “Of seven spans in stature” (p. 93).

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(16) The space between his shoulders is well filled up (literally, “heaped up”; *cit-āntarāṃsa*).

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(17) His skin is fine and of the colour of gold.

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(18) When he is standing erect and not bending, his arms reach down to the knees.

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(19) The front part of his body is like a lion.

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(20) His body has the symmetrical proportions of a banyan-tree (nyagrodha). “It was believed that a banyan always measured the same in height and width” (*Dialogues* ii, 15). “The bodhisattva’s height is equal to his outstretched arms” (E. J. Thomas: “Buddha”, p. 220).

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(21) Each hair on his body rises straight upward.

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(22) Each hair curls to the right.

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(23) His private member is concealed in a sheath.

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(24) He has well-rounded thighs.

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(25) His legs are like an antelope’s.

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(26) He has long fingers.

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(27) He has long heels.

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(28) He has prominent ankles (*utsaṅga-pāda*. Pāli: *ussaṅkha-pāda*). Csoma reads *ucchaṅkha-pāda* and translates: “the joints of the ankles do not appear.” The Tibetan equivalent is *shabs-kyi loṅ-bu-mi-mṅonpa*, which means, “the ankle-bone of the foot is not conspicuous” (Tib. Dicy. 363, 1224). The Tibetan interpretation is just the opposite of the usual explanation. Other renderings are as follows:—

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“His ankles are like rounded shells (T. W. Rhys Davids: *Dialogues* ii, 14; iii, 138).

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Lord Chalmers: “His ankles are over the exact middle of his tread” (*Majjh.* tr., ii, 72).

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E. J. Thomas: “Prominent ankles” (“Buddha”, p. 240).

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F. Max Müller: “Having the foot arched” (*Dh. S.*, p. 53).

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E. Burnouf: “Il a le cou-de-pied saillant” (“Lotus”, p. 573).

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(29) His hands and feet are soft and delicate.

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(30) His hands and feet are webbed or netted. (*jāl-aṅguli-hasta-pāda*. Pāli: *jāla-hattha-pāda*.) Other renderings are as follows:—

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“Hands and feet like a net” (T. W. Rhys Davids: *Dialogues* ii, 14). “Les doigts de ses pieds et de ses mains sont marqués de réseaux” (E. Burnouf, “Lotus,” 573-4).

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“His fingers and toes spring clean, without webbing between them” (*Majjh.* tr., ii, 72).

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“Les doigts de ses pieds et de ses mains sont réunis par une membrane, jusqu’à la première phalange” (P. Foucaux, *Lal. V.*, trsln., p. 96).

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“Netted hands and feet” (E. J. Thomas, “Buddha,” p. 220).

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“His hands have the fingers united by a membrane” (A. B. Keith : “Indian Mythology,” p. 195). The Pāli Dicy. explains thus : “having net-like hands and feet, probably with reference to long nails.” E. J. Thomas refers to the webbed fingers of some of the Gandhāra statues, and adds : “But this was only a device of the sculptor to give strength to parts likely to be broken, since this feature only occurs when the fingers stand out. Buddhaghoṣa appears to have known this view, as he denies that the fingers were webbed, and says that one with such a defect could not receive ordination. That the network of lines on the hand was originally intended is a sufficient explanation. Buddhaghoṣa’s own view is not likely to be the primitive one. He says that the four fingers and five toes were of equal length (as he no doubt saw them on statues), and that when Buddha entwined his fingers, they were like a window with a lattice made by a skilful carpenter” (“Buddha”, p. 222). The difficulty seems to be that the Pāli text reads simply *jāla-hattha-pādo* (Digha ii, 17), but the *M. Vy.* and the *Divy.* give *jāl-āvanaddha-hasta-pādaḥ*. The *Mtu.* has *jāla*, but it does not mention the epithets in their fully developed form, and one manuscript reads *jāli* (*Mtu.*, ii, 30). The *Dh. S.* gives a corrupt reading, which may be understood to stand for *jāl-ābaddh-aṅguli-pāṇi-pāda-talatā*. Thus several Sanskrit texts seem to differ from the Pāli in inserting a participle (*avanaddha* or *ābaddha*) after *jāla* and also mentioning the fingers. Perhaps the Pāli and the Sanskrit terms do not mean the same thing. The Sanskritists may have altered the phrase in order to explain the “webbed fingers” of the Gandhāra statues. It is a curious circumstance that Csoma’s Tibetan list omits this item altogether. But the Tibetan equivalent is *phyag daṅ shabs dra-bas ḥbrel-ba*, which means “having the hands and feet connected with a web or net”. The word *dra-ba* is also employed in a compound, which denotes “web-footed, like a goose or duck”; and the word *ḥbrel-ba* is used in a phrase which means, “her fingers and toes adhered together, like the toes of a goose” (Tib. Dicy., 646, 933).

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(31) On the soles of his feet, there are two wheels, white, radiant and luminous, with a thousand spokes, and (complete) with rim and nave (tyre and hub). The *Dh. S.* and *M. Vy.* simply mention that the hands and the feet are marked with wheels, and Csoma’s Tibetan list agrees with them. The wheel is not described, as it is in the *Lal. V.* The *Mtu.* omits the wheel altogether (ii, 29).

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It has been suggested that the wheel is the symbol of the sun; but it really represents universal sovereignty, as is clearly indicated in the *Mahā-sudassana-sutta* (*Digha*, iii, 169 ff.). The word *cakra-vartin* is associated with a "wheel", though *cakra* originally meant "sphere of power" in that word. E. Senart of course discerns a solar attribute in the wheel. He says: "C'est le propre *cakra*, à mille raies, de *Viṣṇu*, un des emblèmes les plus antiques et les plus populaires du soleil . . . . Cette roue . . . peut même paraître issue d'une conception du soleil considéré directement comme le pied du dieu lumineux . . . . . Ce pied unique formerait avec la roue unique du char solaire un parallélisme frappant (*Ṛgveda*, i, 164.2)".⁴¹ But the analogy is very defective. The *bodhisattva* bears the figure of the wheel on the soles of both feet, and, according to some accounts, on his hands too. It is not easy to understand why he should bear so many symbols of the sun on his body. A wheel is one of the seven "jewels" of a universal monarch, and a Buddha is also said to "turn the wheel" of the Doctrine. In the sculptures of Bharhut, the wheel represents the preaching of the first sermon by Gautama Buddha.⁴² Hence a *bodhisattva*, who is born with this mark, must become either a universal ruler (*cakra-vartin*) or a Buddha (*dharma-cakra-pravartin*). E. J. Thomas has clearly shown the untenability of the solar hypothesis in this case ("Buddha", pp. 219 ff.).

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(32) His feet are well-set (well-planted). "The traditional meaning is that the whole under-surface touched the ground at once" (*Dialogues*, ii, 14).

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The eighty secondary marks are similar to these principal characteristics in many respects. They are described in the *Mahā-vastu*, the *Lal. V.*, the *M. Vy.*, and the *Dh. S.*⁴³

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With regard to the origin of these signs of a *mahāpuruṣa*, it is admitted that the theory of the *mahāpuruṣa* existed before the rise of Buddhism. E. Senart has traced it through the epics and the *Upaniṣads* back to the *Atharva-veda* (x, 2, p. 217), and even to the *Puruṣa-sūkta* of the *Ṛgveda* (x, 90; vol. vi, p. 243). But the theory of the bodily marks of a *mahāpuruṣa* has very little in common with the idea of the primeval mythical *Puruṣa* with a thousand heads, a thousand eyes and a thousand feet. It is more probable that the epithets applied to the heroes of the great epics gave rise to the list of the thirty-two signs. Rāma is described in the Rāmāyaṇa as *vipul-āmsa*, *mahā-bāhu*, *mahā-hanu*, *ājānu-bāhu*, *sulalāṭa*, *sama-vibhakta-āṅga*, *pīna-vakṣas*, *viśāla-akṣa*, etc.⁴⁴ The doctrine of the marks is pre-Buddhistic, as the Pāli canon speaks of brahmins who profess to interpret them, and it also disapproves of such occupations.⁴⁵ Some of the marks indicate the poet's ideal of manly beauty, e.g. white and regular teeth, a broad chest, black hair, dark eyes, rotundity of figure, etc. Others are symbolic : the covered male organ typifies lifelong chastity; the long tongue betokens success as a preacher, or it may be an emblem of the sun's rays. A few marks may be due to some tradition with regard to Gautama Buddha's physiognomy. Some are clearly borrowed from Gandhāra sculpture, which created a figure of Buddha in imitation of the Hellenic statues of Apollo. A. Foucher says : “ Aux grands Dieux, aux *bodhisattvas*, au Buddha, ils semblent avoir été d'accord pour réserver le type idéal de Phoebus-Apollon . . . Les Buddha, qui tous ont la tête découverte et la marque de l'*ūrṇā* au front . . . La routine des imitateurs gandhariens vient de créer de toutes pièces la bosse de l'*uṣṇīṣa*, dans l'acception bouddhique et postérieure du mot . . . Une malfaçon de leurs pâles imitateurs fait surgir sur la tête du Maître . . . une protubérance d'un caractère anormal.” ⁴⁶

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The thirty-two marks thus owe their origin to the national æsthetic ideal, spiritual symbolism and Gandhāra art. The eighty minor marks are due chiefly to the fussy fatuity of the Buddhist writers, who could not leave well alone.

III. Marriage, Renunciation and Penance

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The *bodhisattva* is thus physically and intellectually a very highly developed man. Even as a boy, he is fond of Meditation and once experiences the first *dhyāna*, as he sits under a tree in rapt Concentration.⁴⁷ This incident seems to be an early rehearsal of the final scene under the *bodhi-tree*. His father naturally wishes that the young man should become a powerful monarch, and not a Buddha. He surrounds his son with the greatest comfort and luxury in gorgeous palaces. The *bodhisattva* marries only in order to conform to social custom, as he is free from passion. This general law applies to such a *bodhisattva*. Here the Buddhist writers have made a necessary compromise between fact and theory. They do not go so far as those Jainas, who deny the fact of Mahāvīra's marriage.⁴⁸ But they spiritualise the marriage and deduce the general rule for all *bodhisattvas* in their last lives. In the meantime, the *bodhisattva* sees four signs (*nimittāni*) that precede his Renunciation. The *devas* show him an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic.49 This incident has been invented as the concrete illustration of a passage in the Pāli canon, in which Buddha declares that he pondered on the realities of old age, sickness and death in the days before the Renunciation.50 The Buddhas of the universe also exhort and rouse the *bodhisattva* by reminding him of his great Vow and the practice of the Perfections in his past lives.51 All *bodhisattvas* receive such a *sañcodanā* (instigation, prompting) from these Buddhas before the Renunciation. At last, the *bodhisattva* leaves his home at night and becomes a wandering monk and student. All such *bodhisattvas* take this step. The *devas* help them in their flight by opening the gates, sending the people to sleep, and rendering other services.52 Gautama Buddha becomes the disciple of two teachers, but this rule does not apply to all *bodhisattvas*, as they are supposed to have mastered all the methods of study and meditation in their previous lives. The next event in the careers of all *bodhisattvas* is the performance of austerities.53 This rule is derived from the facts of Gautama Buddha’s life; but quite new motives for the action are adduced, so that the *bodhisattva* should not be supposed to undergo the penance from lack of wisdom. The *bodhisattva* gives up his austerities, eats proper food, and resolves to seek Enlightenment by Musing and Concentration. He dreams five dreams that seem to augur well for his success. The next day, he goes in the evening to a tree and sits cross-legged under it with the firm determination to win Enlightenment. He is accompanied and praised by many *devas*.54 All such *bodhisattvas* sit in the same way under a tree on the night of Enlightenment. The seat is called the *bodhi-maṇḍa* (throne of *bodhi*). But the hardest ordeal now remains. The great duel with *Māra* begins at this point. Who and what is this *Māra*, who must be defeated and conquered before *bodhi* can be attained?

IV. Māra and the Bodhisattva

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(1) *Māra* in the Pāli canon. The word *Māra* (Pāli: *Māro*) is derived from the root *mṛ* (to die). The *Atharva-veda* mentions a *Māra*, who is associated with *Yama*, Death, and other evil powers (vi, 93, 1, page 129; *Yamo mṛtyur agha-māro nirṛtho babhruḥ*, etc.). In the post-Vedic literature, *Mṛtyu* (Death) is spoken of as *pāpmā* (wicked or evil) in several passages: e.g. *tāny asya garbha' eva santi pāpmā mṛtyur agṛhṇāt; sarvāṇi bhūtani pāpmano mṛtyospṛṇavānīti* (Çatapatha Brāhmaṇa, viii, 4, 2, pp. 433, 434). As E. Windisch has pointed out, *Pāpman* is also the subject of a hymn in the *Atharva-veda* (vi, 26, page 111; *Ava mā pāpmantsrja vaçī*, etc.).55 It may be taken to mean “Misery, Misfortune, Evil”. *Māra* is called Namuci in Buddhist literature, and Namuci is mentioned as an *asura* (demon) in the *Ṛgveda* (x, 131, 4, *yuvam surāmam açvinā namucāv-āsure sacā*). *Māra* has been identified by E. Senart with the ancient symbols of Death, Yama, *Mṛtyu*, etc., as the name evidently means “the slayer”.56 H. Kern derives it from *mala* (dirt, impurity) or *marīci* (ray, mirage); but this etymology is merely fantastic.57 The words, *Māra*, Namuci and *pāpman* (Pāli: *pāpimā*) are thus found in pre-Buddhistic literature. In the Pāli canon, *Māra* is also called *kaṇha* (black. *Sutta-nipāta*, 967, page 187), probably because he was in some way associated with the mythology of the aboriginal tribes of India.58 *Māra* is an important figure in the mythology of the Buddhists. We find the following phrase in many passages of the Pāli canon: “this universe, with the *devas*, *Māra* and *Brahmā*, recluses and brahmins.” 59 In the *Mahā-parinibbāna-sutta*, Buddha tells Ānanda that *Māra* has a regular assembly.60 In the *Māratajjaniya-sutta* of the *Majjhima-Nikāya*, Mahā-Moggallāna says that he was formerly a *Māra* named Dūsī, and committed certain sins in that life (*Majjhima*, i, 333 ff.). In the *Māra-saṃyutta*, *Māra* appears as an elephant and a snake in order to frighten Buddha.61 He assumes the form of a peasant and disturbs Buddha’s preaching.62 He tries to distract the audience by making a terrific noise. Such half-comic exploits end in his discomfiture, as it appears that he is nonplussed and rendered harmless, if his identity is discovered. *Diṭṭho si* (thou art seen) is the formula that can always be employed against him. He enters Moggallāna’s stomach, which feels heavy in consequence; but the saint recognises him.63 *Māra* also tempts the nuns in the disguise of a man.64 He goes about as a mist or a cloud of smoke in order to search for the *viññāṇa* of a monk, who has committed suicide.65 In the *Mahāvagga*, *Māra* appears twice and tries to assert his power over Buddha, who sternly repels and repudiates him.66 In the *Nidāna-kathā*, he attacks Buddha with nine storms of rain, wind, rocks, weapons, charcoal ashes, sand, mud and darkness; and his elephant is 150 leagues in height.67

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In all such Pāli texts, Māra appears as a living, active and mischievous imp or celestial being. This is his personal aspect: he is a mythological being with a distinct individuality, like Sakka and other devas. But there is also an impersonal aspect of Māra. In many passages, he is regarded merely as the symbol of Evil, Sin, Desire and Temptation. He then belongs more to the realm of Allegory than of Myth. Sensuous pleasure and the sixfold “Sphere of Sense” are said to be his Domain.68 He cannot obtain entrance (otāra), if a monk practises virtue and self-control.69 Māra’s three daughters are allegorical, not mythical, creatures: they are named Taṇhā (Craving), Arati (Aversion) and Ragā (Sutta-nipāta, verse 835). In the Padhāna-sutta, his mythical personality is not prominent: he serves only as a symbol of Temptation.70 In some passages, phenomenal existence as such is identified with Māra, and Māra is said to be equivalent to the five khandhas and all perishable things and phenomena (Rādha-saṃyutta, Saṃyutta-Nikāya, iii, 189).71 In such utterances, the impersonal and allegorical aspect of Māra is emphasised, and the personal, mythical aspect seems to be entirely ignored.

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(2) In Buddhist Sanskrit literature, Māra has also a personal and an impersonal aspect. In his personal aspect, he is the chief of the devas who are collectively called “the mārakāyikas”.72 There are millions of these devas.73 Māra has the old titles: namuci, kṛṣṇa-bandhu, pāpīyān.74 He is especially the god of Desire and Lust in general; he represents all that is detrimental to progress towards Enlightenment. He is not chiefly or primarily associated with the idea of Death. E. Windisch lays stress on the wrong point, when he says: “Buddha besiegt den Tod, der Tod will sich nicht besiegen lassen; das sind die primären Gedanken, die der Māralegende zu Grunde liegen.”75 But the victory over Death is not emphasised in the same degree as the conquest of kāma. Māra is first and foremost the god of Lust, Passion, Craving, Desire. One of his daughters is named Tṛṣṇā, and he is spoken of as “the Lord of Desire” (kām-ādhipati).76 He is distinctly identified with Cupid (manmatha, kāma-deva) by Aṣvaghoṣa and Kṣemendra.77 He is “the supreme Lord of the eyes of beautiful women.”78 He tempts Cūḍāmaṇi and others as the god of Love.79 Besides kāma, Māra is most frequently associated with kleça (sin, evil, moral corruption in general).⁸⁰ Kleça is coupled with māra-karma (Māra’s deeds) in the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra (p. 102.14). He is thus the god of Lust and Sin, but he is not the ruler of the gods of the kāma-dhātu, as E. Senart incorrectly assumes (“le chef des dieux de la région des sens).⁸¹ The gods of the kāma-dhātu live in six heavens with their separate chiefs. It is indeed a peculiar circumstance that the devas of the Māra class are not assigned to any heaven in the realm of kāma. Their exact position in Buddhist cosmology is not known. In his personal aspect, Māra plays many pranks and resorts to various tricks in order to impede every bodhisattva’s spiritual development. He dissuades a bodhisattva from giving alms to the monks or the poor. He even employs the desperate stratagem of creating a phantom naraka (purgatory) near the door of the house in order to prevent a charitable householder from going out and helping a monk.⁸² He can assume the shape and form of Gautama Buddha and show himself to the monk Upagupta, who is very eager to see Buddha’s physical body. Upagupta and he part good friends, and it is even reported that Māra is converted and his occupation is thus gone, perhaps for ever.⁸³ But he can also preach false doctrine and mislead the faithful in this convenient disguise.⁸⁴ He sows discord among the bodhisattvas and dissuades them from diligence in study.⁸⁵ He disturbs the congregations and distracts their attention during a bodhisattva’s sermons.⁸⁶ He appears as a heretical teacher in the great contest of the miracles between Buddha and the other religious preachers.⁸⁷ He tries to frighten the bodhisattvas by pestering them with fiery meteors (ulkā-pātān).⁸⁸ He troubles a pious bodhisattva by hiding all the water in a certain region.⁸⁹ In various ways, he asserts his power and shows that he is alive and at work. But a bodhisattva can always defeat him by means of magical spells and circles, and also by the power of Virtue and Wisdom.⁹⁰

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The personal aspect of Māra is not so important in later Buddhist literature as it is in the Mahā-vastu and the Lal. V. His interesting and concrete figure is resolved in an increasing degree into the abstract idea of Evil. “Māra-karma” does not always denote the actual presence of the deva Māra or his myrmidons, just as such English words as “diabolical” and “devilry” are now dissociated from the conception of the Tempter, who talked to Job and Jesus. This impersonal aspect of Māra is emphasised by the Buddhist writers, who have devised the formula of the four Māras.⁹¹

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In this list, the personal Māra is allotted only one place, while the impersonal Māra consists of three items. It is clear that the former has receded into the background : he is called deva-putra-māra. But the other three Māras are identified with the principles of sin, individuality and transiency. They are named kleça-māra (Sin, Passion), skandha-māra (Aggregates, Components of individual existence) and mṛtyu-māra (Death). Here the general term kleça has replaced the old narrower word kāma. There is a samādhi, which can rout these four Māras.92 The Da. Bhū. speaks of "the ways of the four Māras" (catur-māra-pathāḥ).93 This impersonal triple Māra incites a bodhisattva to sins and spiritual errors. He is especially noted for fostering Pride in the heart (māna, abhimāna, manyanā), particularly when a bodhisattva performs miracles or practises austerities.94 The Pr. Pā. Aṣṭa. earnestly warns a bodhisattva against the dangers of Pride in all its forms.95 The well-known "army of Māra" must also be supposed to belong to this impersonal Māra, as it only consists of different vices, evils and errors : "lusts, aversion, hunger, thirst, craving, torpor-and-stolidity, fear, doubt, anger, hypocrisy, avarice, love of fame, self-praise, envy and censoriousness."96 Çāntideva clearly explains the nature of the impersonal Māra by enumerating several māra-karmāṇi, which are also called "the hooks of Māra" (mār-āṅkuça). Lack of earnestness and diligence in study; quarrels and controversies; anxious thoughts for one’s relatives or about the necessaries of life; discord between teachers and pupils; indifference to continual spiritual progress among the recluses; compliance with the advice of bad friends who do not appreciate the ideal of the Mahāyāna, and improper and unsuitable activity : all such things are "the work of Māra".97 The Pr. Pā. Aṣṭa. teaches how this Māra can be defeated and frustrated. A bodhisattva never abandons the living beings (i.e., continues to serve them); he regards all phenomena as empty (çūnya); his actions are in harmony with his words; and he is helped and honoured by the Buddhas. These are a bodhisattva’s four weapons against this Māra.98 Māra is also pained and rendered powerless by the practice of self-control and the acceptance of the true faith.99

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(3) The Bodhisattva’s Last Struggle against Māra.

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In the bodhisattva’s combat with Māra, both the personal and impersonal aspects of Māra are emphasised with almost equal force. But the final victory is won over the personal Māra, as the mythological element has become more important than the allegory in the *Lal. V.* and the *Mtu.* The bodhisattva’s last struggle with *Māra* under the tree falls into two parts :—

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(i) *Māra*’s attempt to persuade the bodhisattva to give up the holy life and the pursuit of Enlightenment, and (ii) *Māra*’s violent attack on the bodhisattva for driving him away from the tree. In the spiritual duel, the impersonal metaphysical *Māra* is predominant. In the real “battle”, the personal *Māra* of the myths is the leader of the demon-hordes.

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The *Mahā-vastu* suddenly introduces *Māra* without dilating on his motive, but *Māra* explains further on that the bodhisattva’s success will deprive him of his dominion over the multitude.¹⁰⁰ The *Mtu.* relates several stories to show that the bodhisattva had also outwitted and checkmated *Māra* on different occasions in his previous lives. In the *B. Ct.*, *Māra* says that the bodhisattva may conquer his realms and make them empty.¹⁰¹ Kṣemendra also relates that *Māra* comes on his own initiative.¹⁰² But the *Lal. V.* explains that the bodhisattva deliberately challenges *Māra* and informs him with regard to the situation, so that he may do his worst and also perhaps learn the true law in the end. His defeat would lead to the submission of all the *devas* of the realm of sensuous Desire and the ultimate conversion of his followers. The bodhisattva then emits a ray of light which communicates his message to *Māra*.¹⁰³ *Māra* too dreams a dream with thirty-two ominous signs that seem to foretell his doom.¹⁰⁴ *Māra* gets ready to defend his empire. But it must be stated that his house is divided against itself. The *Māra* of the Sanskrit treatises has offspring in both aspects of his dual personality. The impersonal *Māra* has three daughters, who are usually named *Rati* (Lust, Attachment), *Arati* (Aversion, Discontent, Unrest) and *Tṛṣṇā* (Craving).¹⁰⁵ Aṣvaghoṣa does not follow the Pāli tradition in this respect and gives them other names, viz. *Rati*, *Prīti* (in the sense of Love, Attachment), and *Tṛṣā* (= *Tṛṣṇā*). He also speaks of three sons of *Māra*: *Vibhrama* (Confusion, Error), *Harṣa* (Elation) and *Darpa* (Pride).¹⁰⁶ But the *Lal. V.* creates a numerous family for the personal *Māra*, who is said to have “a thousand sons”.¹⁰⁷ Some names are also given, e.g. Sārthavāha, Durmati, Madhuranirghoṣa, Çatabāhu, Subuddhi, Sunetra, Ugratejas, Dīrghabāhu, Bhayaṅkara, etc.¹⁰⁸ It is clear that these names are mythical, and not allegorical. They are modelled on the names of the warriors of the *Rāmāyaṇa* and the Mahābhārata. The Mtu. simply states that Māra's sons Sārthavāha and Janīsuta tried to dissuade him from attacking the bodhisattva.¹⁰⁹ But the Lal. V. describes a protracted debate between the two parties, into which Māra's children are divided on account of differences of opinion with regard to the projected conflict.¹¹⁰ Some were eager for the fray, while the others counselled prudence and discretion. We seem to hear distant echoes of the scenes in Rāvaṇa's palace in Laṅkā before the struggle with Rāma.¹¹¹ It is probable that the Lal. V. is indebted to the Rāmāyaṇa for this animated discussion.

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The account of the bodhisattva's last struggle against Māra is an amalgam of allegory and myth.

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(a) The Allegory. The struggle between the bodhisattva and the impersonal Māra is really an allegory, like other similar stories of temptation. The bodhisattva's allegorical conflict with this Māra begins early in his last existence. When he renounces his home, Māra appears and tells him that he should continue to live in the world, as he may obtain the wheel of universal sovereignty after seven days.¹¹² Later, when the bodhisattva practises austerities, Māra comes, tries to persuade him to give up his strivings, and says: "Thou art lean, pale and miserable. Death is near thee. Death has a thousand parts of thee: life is only one part. If thou givest alms and sacrificest (to the gods) day and night, thou shalt gain great Merit: what hast thou to do with striving?"¹¹³ The bodhisattva repels Māra on this occasion. When he sits under the bodhi-tree, the last fight begins. The Mahā-vastu relates that Māra tempts the bodhisattva to return to the royal palace and enjoy sensual pleasures, as he is still young and healthy. Māra also speaks of the great sacrifices (mahā-yajñāni) that should be offered by such a powerful monarch (e.g. aṣva-medha, puruṣa-medha, etc.).¹¹⁴ According to the Lal. V., Māra exclaims in an envious mood: "Rise, O Prince, rise. Your Merit is such that you can enjoy sovereignty. But how can you obtain Liberation?"¹¹⁵ The bodhisattva replies that he despises worldly power and grandeur, as he has already sacrificed wealth, limbs and life many times in many existences. The devatā of the earth, Sthāvarā, rises out of the ground and corroborates the bodhisattva's statement.¹¹⁶ Finally, Māra sends his daughters to tempt the bodhisattva with their womanly wiles, which are said to be of thirty-two kinds. They engage in a lengthy discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of the *kāmas*, and the *bodhisattva* declares that he is absolutely free from passion and lust.¹¹⁷ *Māra’s* discomfiture is now complete. The *bodhisattva* has withstood the temptations of Sovereignty and Love.

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Cites (25)