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The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c7.s3: III

The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c7.s3

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III

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*Anuttara-pūjā* (Supreme Worship).—As the ideal of Faith and Worship gradually became predominant in the Mahāyāna during the fifth and sixth centuries, the Buddhist teachers were not content with prescribing only *gotra* and *adhimukti* as the necessary preliminaries to the *citt-otpāda*. They introduced more devotion and ritual, and also propounded the new and startling ideas of Sin and Confession.

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This development is reflected in the *Dh. S.*, the *Çikṣā* and the *B.C. Ava*.⁴⁷ A bodhisattva must perform the following religious exercises before he can attain to the "Thought of Enlightenment" :—

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(a) *Vandanā* and *Pūjā* (Worship and adoration of the Buddhas, the bodhisattvas and the Doctrine).

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Çāntideva is the chief representative of this devotional type of Buddhism. In the second canto of the *B.C. Ava.*, he sings a hymn of love and adoration for the Buddhas and the great bodhisattvas. He wishes to worship them in a fitting manner in order to attain to the *citt-otpāda*. He lavishly offers them everything that is beautiful and gorgeous,—all flowers, fruits, jewels, limpid waters, gem-producing mountains, woods and forests, flowering creepers and fruit-laden trees, celestial perfumes and incense, the wish-fulfilling tree of heaven, lakes adorned with lotuses and swans, wild and cultivated plants, and all other valuable things in the entire universe that may be offered in worship.

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At this point in the rhapsody, the poet seems to feel that he is giving away what does not belong to him and that this sort of pūjā really costs him nothing. He suddenly pulls himself up and adds these touching lines, which breathe the true spirit of devotion :—

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“ I give myself to the *Jinas* (the conquerors). I give myself entirely and utterly to their sons (i.e. the *bodhisattvas*). O noble Beings, take possession of me. I have become your slave through Love.” (B.C. Ava., ii, 8.)

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Çāntideva then declares that he would render humble service to the Buddhas and the *bodhisattvas*. He would gladly prepare their bath, massage their bodies, spread perfumes over them, etc. He yields again for a moment to the temptation of bestowing on them costly lamps, spacious palaces, lustrous gems and lovely flowers. But he ends in a happier vein, and praises and worships the Buddhas and the *bodhisattvas* in these words :—

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“ I bow to the Buddhas of the past, present and future, to the Doctrine, and to the noble band (of *bodhisattvas*) with as many obeisances (as many times) as there are atoms in all the buddha-fields.” 48

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(b) *Çaraṇa-gamana*.—Çāntideva then repeats the formula of “ taking refuge ” in the Buddha, the Doctrine and the *bodhisattvas*. The threefold formula dates from a very ancient period.49 The Mahāyānists subsequently substituted “ the group of the *bodhisattvas* ” for the old third term, *Sangha*. The triad is also known as the “ three jewels ” (*tri-ratna*). Novices are always described as taking this first step of confessing their faith in these three “ jewels ” before they proceed to the higher duties of practising the ethical precepts.50

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(c) Confession of Sins (*pāpa-deçanā*).—The poet confesses his sins, declares that he is a miserable sinner, promises not to sin again, and takes refuge in the *bodhisattvas* for protection and succour. These verses introduce a new note in Buddhist literature, which was not heard before in the Hinayāna or the Mahāyāna. Çāntideva exclaims :—

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“ I am a brute : 51 whatever sins I have committed, or caused others to commit, either in this life or in the endless series of previous existences, and whatsoever sins I have approved, all those sins I confess. I am consumed with remorse, and I have earned death through my folly (have slain myself).
“ O Leaders ! Whatever grievous sins I have committed with my body, speech and mind against the ‘ three jewels ’, or my

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parents, or my teachers, or others, I confess them all now. I am a sinner soiled with many transgressions (vices, faults).

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“How shall I escape from this? I am always beset by fear and anxiety lest I should die soon before the burden (accumulation) of my sins is diminished.” (*B.C. Ava.*, ii, 28–32.)

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Çāntideva calls on the *bodhisattvas* to save him. He reflects that death suddenly smites living beings like a thunderbolt. He has sinned through lust, hatred and delusion. He has sinned through the love of kinsmen and friends, who cannot protect him in the hour of death, as every man must reap as he has sown. He has sinned through the pursuit of pleasure, forgetting that all external objects must be left behind by Man, who is only a stranger and a pilgrim on earth. He thinks of the terrible punishment that awaits him after death, and asks: “Who can save me?” He repents of his folly in neglecting the cultivation of virtue. He has failed to amass spiritual Merit. He promises to follow the Buddha’s precepts, as a sick man must obey the physician. He is mortally afraid of the pain of rebirth in purgatory, and again confesses all his transgressions against natural law and against the rules and precepts of the Buddhist Community.52 He ends by declaring that he will sin no more. (*B.C. Ava.*, ii, 33 ff.)

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This remarkable Confession, the “De Profundis” of the pious Buddhist, bears witness to the influence of the completely developed Hindu doctrine of *bhakti* (devotion) on Buddhist thought. The ideas of self-reliance and personal retribution are discarded, and the *bodhisattvas* are invoked to save a sinner from the evil consequences of his deeds. It is assumed that frank confession is meritorious and can induce the *bodhisattvas* to help him. This trend of thought reminds us of the ancient Vedic hymns to *Varuṇa* and the later devotional literature of the Hindu sects like the *Vaiṣṇavas* and the *Çaivas*.53 The ideas of sin as an offence against higher deities, and of confession, repentance and extraneous protection were alien to the spirit of Buddhism during several centuries. It is true that King Ajātasattu confessed his sin before Gautama Buddha, who declared that he “accepted the confession”, whatever that may mean.54 But the iron law of *karma* was not effectively relaxed in favour of erring humanity before *bhakti* came to be regarded as an easy and alternative device to escape pain and attain felicity. In later Buddhist literature, repentance and confession are held to absolve the sinner from the sin and its punishment. They can at least mitigate the disastrous consequences of sin. As many as thirty-five Buddhas are supposed to hear Confession.55

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(d) *Puṇy-ānumodanā* (Rejoicing in the Good). Çāntideva declares that he rejoices in thinking of the good deeds of all beings, of the Liberation obtained by the *arhats*, and of the spiritual heights attained by the *bodhisattvas* and the Buddhas.56

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(e) *Adhyeṣaṇā* and *Yācanā* (Prayer and Supplication). Çāntideva prays and implores all the Buddhas to preach the true Doctrine and not to disappear in final *nirvāṇa*. The people will remain blind, if they do not receive instruction from the Buddhas.57

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(f) *Declaration of Altruism and Self-Denial*.

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The last stage, which immediately precedes the *citt-otpāda*, has been described as *pariṇāmanā* (the application of one's Merit to the welfare of others) and *ātma-bhāvādi-parityāgaḥ* (renunciation of one's body, or of oneself, etc.). These descriptive terms have been invented by the later commentators, and the *Dh. S.* even puts *pariṇāmanā* after the production of the Thought of Enlightenment.58 Çāntideva really gives us a magnificent Canticle of love and charity. It deserves to be quoted in full, as it reveals the spirit that should animate and inspire the novice, who would become a *bodhisattva*. As Çāntideva speaks in the first person, he brings us into touch with the living soul of the *bodhisattva* ideal as distinguished from the dry bones of the tiresome numerical lists of a *bodhisattva*'s qualities and powers.

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He says: “Whatever Good I have acquired by doing all this, may I (by that Merit) appease and assuage all the pains and sorrows of all living beings.59

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May I be like unto a healing drug for the sick! May I be the physician for them, and also tend them till they are whole again! (literally, ‘till the disease does not arise again’).60

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May I allay (literally, kill) the pain of hunger and thirst by showers of food and drink (by raining down food and drink). And may I myself be food and drink (for the hungry and the thirsty) during the intermediate æon of famine!61

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May I be an inexhaustible treasure for poor creatures! May I be foremost in rendering service to them with manifold and various articles and requisites!

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I renounce my bodies, my pleasures and all my Merit in the past, present and future, so that all beings may attain the Good (accomplish their welfare): I have no desire (for all those things).

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To give up everything, that is *nirvāṇa*: and my mind seeks *nirvāṇa*. If I must give up everything, then it is best to bestow it upon the living beings.

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I have devoted this body to the welfare of all creatures. They may revile me all the time or bespatter me with mud; they may play with my body and mock me and make sport of me; yea, they may even slay me. I have given my body to them: why should I think of all that?

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They may make me do such things (actions) as bring happiness to them. May no one ever suffer any evil through me! (literally, ‘having had relations with me’).

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If they have thoughts of anger or of friendliness towards me, may those very thoughts be the means of accomplishing all that they desire!

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Those persons who revile me, or do me harm, or scoff at me, may they all attain Enlightenment! 62

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May I be the protector of the helpless! May I be the guide of wayfarers! May I be like upon a boat, a bridge and a causeway for all who wish to cross (a stream)! May I be a lamp for all who need a lamp! May I be a bed for all who lack a bed! May I be a slave to all who want a slave! May I be for all creatures a *cintāmaṇi* (the philosopher's stone) and a *bhadraghaṭa* (a vessel from which a lottery is drawn, a pot of fortune), even like unto an efficacious rite of worship and a potent medicinal herb! May I be for them a *kalpa-vṛkṣa* (the wish-fulfilling tree) and a *kāma-dhenu* (the cow yielding all that one desires)!” 63 (B.C. *Ava.*, iii, 6–19.)

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IV

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*Bodhi-citt-otpāda*.—When a person has fulfilled the requirements of *gotra*, *adhimukti* and *anuttara-pūjā*, he is ready for the decisive step, “the production of the Thought of Enlightenment.” D. T. Suzuki defines *bodhi-citta* as “intelligence—heart”, and says: “Theoretically speaking... the Bodhi or Bodhicitta is in every sentient being.... In profane hearts, it may be found enveloped in ignorance and egoism.” 64 He thus identifies *bodhi-citta* with *bodhi* itself! M. Anesaki also takes a metaphysical view of *bodhi-citta*, and defines it as “the primordial essence of our mind, which in itself consists in the supreme *bodhi*”.65 But it is not necessary to indulge in such subtleties in order to explain this simple term. *Bodhi-citta* simply means: “the Thought of *bodhi*”. The word *citta* has also been translated as “heart”, “soul,” “mind.” But it should be interpreted as “Thought, idea”, in the compound *bodhi-citta*. It is derived from the root *cit*, meaning “to perceive, to form an idea in the mind, etc.” (Skt. Dicy., M.W., 323b). The fanciful etymology suggested by the author of the *Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra* need not be taken seriously. He explains *citta* as “that by which *karma* (action or its result) is gained or accumulated” (*cittena cīyate karma*).66 The compound word *citt-otpāda* is employed in its ordinary non-technical sense in a passage of the *Divy*. (394,19—*sādhu sādhu mahārāja çobhanas te citt-otpādaḥ*). Here it means “thought, idea”.

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When the Buddhists developed the *bodhisattva* doctrine, they attached a special meaning to it, and it became a technical term. *Bodhi* is the prize that a thoughtful person should strive to secure. But it is perhaps “too bright and good for human nature’s daily food”. The Buddhist writers have therefore adduced several reasons, motives and considerations, which should induce the average man to produce the Thought of *bodhi* in himself. He should reflect that birth as a human being is a very rare privilege.67 He may be born as an animal, a *preta* or a denizen of purgatory many times, and there is no chance of becoming a *bodhisattva* in those existences. Even if he has escaped these three calamities, it is extremely difficult to find the five or six other favourable conditions that are indispensable for his initiation as a *bodhisattva*.68 He may be born as one of the long-lived *devas*, who cannot aspire to *bodhi*, though they are very happy. He may be born among foreigners or in a barbarous country. He may be defective in his faculties and organs. He may be misled by false doctrines. And lastly, he may find himself on earth during a period when no Buddha has lived and taught, for the perfect Buddhas are very rare.69 He should consider himself fortunate in being free from these eight or nine difficulties and disqualifications, and, above all, in being born as a human being at all, for human life is a blessing that perhaps falls to one’s lot only once in billions of years.

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He should never forget the famous simile of the blind turtle, which explains that the chance of being born as a human being is infinitesimally small. Buddha himself has spoken thus: "Suppose a man should throw into the ocean a yoke with a single aperture in it. It is blown west by an easterly wind or east by a westerly wind; again it is carried north by a southern wind or south by a northerly wind. Now suppose there were a blind turtle in that ocean, and he came to the surface once in a hundred years. What think you, Monks? Would that blind turtle get his neck into that single aperture of the yoke? ... Verily, that turtle would more quickly and easily perform that feat than a fool in his misery can be born as a human being once again".70 So difficult it is to enjoy the blessing of life as a man or woman under fortunate and favourable circumstances (*kṣaṇa-sampad*)! Further, an ordinary worldly person should realise that his life and the external world are painful, impermanent and unsubstantial.71 He should think of death and the inevitable retribution after death. Death and dissolution are everywhere around us.72 Nothing endures.

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The clouds, that strike terror into men's hearts with thunder, lightning and rain, melt away.73 The mighty rivers, that uproot the trees on their banks in the rainy season, shrink again to the size of small and shallow streams.74 The cloud-compelling winds, that smite the mountains and the oceans, abate their fury and die away.75 The beauty of the woodland too is evanescent.76 All happiness ends in sorrow, and life ends in death.77 All creatures begin their journey towards death from the very moment of their conception in the womb.78 Powerful monarchs, skilled archers, clever magicians, haughty devas, furious elephants, ferocious lions and tigers, venomous serpents and malignant demons—all these can quell, subdue and slay their enemies, but even they are powerless against Death, the fierce and irresistible foe of all living beings.79 Realising the peril of death and suffering after death, a wise man should feel fear and trepidation (*saṃvega*) and resolve to become a *bodhisattva*.80

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Besides thinking of his own lasting weal, a thoughtful person should be incited to the pursuit of the ideal of *bodhi* by the spectacle of the misery and folly of the people around him. They are foolish worldlings, deluded by ignorance.81 They are attached to sense-pleasures and enslaved by egotism, pride, false opinions, lust, hate, folly, doubt, craving and evil imaginations.82 They are without refuge and protection and have no haven of rest.83 They are blind, and there is no one to guide them.84 They are travelling through this jungle of mundane existence and towards the precipice of the three states of woe.85 They do not love virtue and duty, and are ungrateful to their parents and spiritual teachers.86 They are addicted to violence, strife, falsehood and cunning.87 Their sins are many, and they suffer from dire diseases and famines.88 The true religion is rejected, and false creeds arise and flourish.89 The world is groaning under the five dreaded calamities of degeneracy (kaṣāya).90 The duration of life is decreasing. The living beings are degenerate, their sins and passions increase, and they hold wrong views. The great Æon itself is nearing its end. Such is the terrible situation, in which the world finds itself. Reflecting on this sad state of things, one should resolve to become a *bodhisattva* in order to help and save all creatures. Such pity, mercy, love and compassion (*karuṇā kṛpā*) are at the very root of the Thought of Enlightenment.91 A *bodhisattva* produces this Thought in himself for his own good and for the welfare and liberation of all living beings. He says: “As the Buddhas of yore accepted the Thought of *bodhi* and regularly followed the discipline of the *bodhisattvas*, even so I too produce (in my mind) this Thought of *bodhi* for the good of the world, and I will follow that discipline in due order.” 92 With this resolve, the man or woman becomes a *bodhisattva*. The *Bo. Bhū.* gives the decisive declaration in these words: ‘O may I obtain supreme and perfect Enlightenment, promote the good of all beings, and establish them in the final and complete *nirvāṇa* and in the Buddha-knowledge!’ Such is his prayer (*prārthanā*).” 93 The two objects (*ālambana*) of the Thought are thus *bodhi* and the good of the living beings (*sattv-ārtha*).94

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Great are the merits and advantages of this heroic step. It cancels and annuls all the sins and transgressions of a *bodhisattva*’s past lives, thus transcending even the law of *karma*.95 It is one of the three “Roots of Merit” (*kuçala-mūlāni*), the other two being purity of thought and freedom from egotism in all its forms.96 It increases spiritual Merit,97 and even those, who encourage it, share in that *puṇya*.98 It leads to happy rebirths, even if one does nothing to realise it in practice, as even a broken diamond is more precious than gold ! 99 It saves a *bodhisattva* from punishment in purgatory, even if he should be guilty of murder.100 It is superior to all good resolutions, mundane or supra-mundane.101 One may count the stars in the sky, but it is impossible to estimate the virtues and merits that are associated with the *bodhi-citta*.102 It is the occasion of rejoicing in the heavens and hells.¹⁰³ Nature exhibits miraculous phenomena at such an auspicious moment.¹⁰⁴ A person at once becomes worthy of respect, like a teacher or a father; and others can acquire Merit by helping him, as he is a "field of Merit".¹⁰⁵ He is now born in the "Buddha's family".¹⁰⁶ His Merit cannot be impaired, and he cannot be injured by beasts, *yakṣas* or other non-human beings. His body does not feel any fatigue, and he acquires a retentive memory (or abiding Mindfulness).¹⁰⁷ He is freed from anger, falsehood, envy, hypocrisy and all such faults of character.¹⁰⁸ He acquires four powers¹⁰⁹:—(1) *adhyātma-bala*, i.e. joy (*ruci*) in *bodhi*, produced by one's own strength; (2) *para-bala*, i.e. the joy conferred by others; (3) *hetu-bala*, i.e. joy experienced on account of exercise in past existences; and (4) *prayoga-bala*, i.e. power obtained by practice in the present life, the company of virtuous persons, etc. The Thought of *bodhi* is supremely blessed and auspicious,¹¹⁰ and may rightly be compared to a pearl, to the ocean, to sweet music, to a shade-giving tree, to a convenient bridge, to the soothing moonbeams, to the rays of the sun, to a universal panacea and an infallible elixir.¹¹¹

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Having sung the praises of the *bodhi-citta* in the usual florid style, the hair-splitting Buddhist philosophers proceed to describe its different species, the causes that produce it, and the practices that fortify it. It may be regarded as of two sorts. One kind is conducive to Liberation and cannot be turned back, as it persists perpetually.¹¹² The other variety of *bodhi-citta* does not lead to Liberation, as it can be turned back, either temporarily or irrevocably.¹¹³ Further, the *bodhi-citta* may be divided into two categories from another point of view: (1) the mere resolution, and (2) the actual progress (or starting) towards *bodhi* (*bodhi-praṇidhi-citta* and *bodhi-prasthāna-citta*).¹¹⁴

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As regards the occasions and causes that may lead to the *bodhi-citta*, special importance is attached to the effect produced by seeing some miracle wrought by a Buddha or a *bodhisattva*, or hearing of it.¹¹⁵ A person may study the true Doctrine and the Scriptures, and thus find the chief motive for conversion.¹¹⁶ He may be instructed and encouraged by a Buddha or his disciple; he may hear the praise of *bodhi* or *bodhi-citta*; or he may realise how perfect a Buddha's personality is. Some benign Buddhas may even rouse the Thought of *bodhi* in others by a deceptive stratagem. Even an ordinary worldly person, who has the proper predisposition, can acquire the *bodhi-citta*, as a new-born tiny sparrow, which has not completely broken its shell, utters a sparrow’s cry. So none need despair.117

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It is a pleasing feature of Buddhist literature on this subject that it lays stress on the advantages of having a good friend (*kalyāṇa-mitra*). The spirit of haughty self-sufficiency is not inculcated. On the contrary, a good friend is regarded as an indispensable factor in the attainment of the *bodhi-citta*, just like *gotra* and *karuṇā*. The possession of such a helper is indeed a blessing (*kalyāṇa-mitra-parigraha-sampad*).118 He should be intelligent, and he should not hold wrong views. He should not lead the would-be *bodhisattva* to negligence or evil actions. He should aspire to the highest ideals and be a man of deep faith.119 Not only is a *kalyāṇa-mitra* necessary for this first step in a *bodhisattva*’s career, but he is useful and valuable at all times. Only a lucky person, who has been very charitable to the poor in a previous existence, can find such a friend.120 A *kalyāṇa-mitra* helps a *bodhisattva* to remain fearless and courageous at all times, and always exhorts him to follow the precepts and ideals of the Mahāyāna (as distinct from the other systems).121 A bad friend (*pāpa-mitra*), on the contrary, dissuades a *bodhisattva* from practising the *pāramitās* (Perfections), drags him down and does not warn him against errors and inferior ideals.122 When a *bodhisattva* has found a good friend, he should never desert him, but try to keep him by all means in his power.123 He should hold that friend as dear as his own life.124

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Last, but not least, fearlessness is necessary for the production of the *bodhi-citta*. The would-be *bodhisattva* must not be timid.125 He can develop such a courageous spirit, if he is noble by nature and also acquires the strength that comes from knowledge (*paṇḍito bhavati*)126 and the habit of meditation and reflexion.127 Sincere faith in Enlightenment and intense enthusiasm for it, combined with deep compassion for others, will also dispel all fear.128

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When the *bodhi-citta* has been attained, it can be rendered firm and strong like adamant (*vajr-opamaḥ*),129 if the *bodhisattva* loves all creatures like a wife (*kadatra-bhāvena*) without being contaminated by such affection.130 He should also entertain the good purpose of promoting their spiritual and physical welfare. He should adopt the practice (*prayoga*) of daily augmenting and strengthening that double purpose and endeavouring to mature the principles (or qualities) of Buddhahood in himself and others.131

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A bodhisattva, who has once accepted the bodhi-citta, must not swerve from the right path or abandon the career. He must reflect that he has given a sacred promise to all creatures, whose welfare and liberation depend on him. 132 He belongs to the family of the Buddhas and must be worthy of his distinguished position. 133 He must be alert and vigilant from the very first day. 134 He should not give up his bodhi-citta, even if Māra (the god of Desire and Death) tries to weaken his resolve with the most dreadful menaces and threats. 135 He should also know that he will certainly suffer torment in the purgatories, if he voluntarily abandons the bodhi-citta through weakness and vacillation. Such a betrayal is a cardinal sin (mūl-āpatti). 136

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Pranidhāna or Pranidhi.—Having accepted the citt-otpāda, the bodhisattva makes a great pranidhāna in order to strengthen his resolve and avert the danger of giving up his glorious task. 137 This term, pranidhāna, is explained by Monier Williams as meaning “prayer, entreaty, supplication” (Skt. Dicy. 609c). D. T. Suzuki interprets it somewhat differently and says: “Pranidhāna is a strong wish, aspiration, prayer, or an inflexible determination to carry out one’s will.” 138 L. Feer explains thus: “Pranidhāna signifie ‘disposition particulière d’esprit, application de l’esprit à un objet determiné’.” 139 The word has been translated as “vow”, “resolve,” “solemn aspiration,” “prayer,” etc. The Tibetan equivalent is smon-lam (Lal. V. Tib., p. 4, line 6). S. C. Das translates: “meditation, prayer, supplication; as a prayer, it seems to be rather for the enjoyment of the fruits of one’s merits and seldom for a favour of a necessity undeserved.” According to H. A. Jäschke, it means: “Prayer, whether it be in the general way of expressing a good wish or offering a petition to the Deity, or in the specific Brahmanic-Buddhistic form, which is always united with some condition or asseveration, as: if such and such a thing be true, then may . . .; wishing-prayer” (Tib. Dicy., 428a). The Tibetan verb smon-pa means “to wish, to desire”. According to E. J. Eitel, the Chinese translate pranidhāna by a phrase, which means “prayers and vows” (p. 121). It may be inferred that the idea underlying pranidhāna is that of an earnest wish, and not strictly that of a vow or resolve. It may be rendered as " Earnest Wish " or " Aspiration ".

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Pranidhāna is both the cause and the result of the Thought of Enlightenment.¹⁴⁰ It is of three kinds : that which relates to happy rebirths; that which aims at the good of all beings ; and that which is intended to purify the buddha-fields.¹⁴¹

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The earliest formula of a bodhisattva's pranidhāna was quite simple. The Pr. Pā. Aṣṭa., for instance, gives it in these words : " We having crossed (the stream of transmigratory existence), may we help the living beings to cross ! We being liberated, may we liberate others ! We being comforted, may we comfort others ! We being finally released, may we release others ! "¹⁴² In the Ava. Ṣa., Pūrṇabhadra and others add a very short declaration to these four sentiments : " By this Thought of Enlightenment, the Root of Good, and by my renunciation of everything that can be given away, may I become a Buddha in this blind world, which is without a guide and leader."¹⁴³ The four clauses of the Pr. Pā. Aṣṭa., which form the kernel of the formula, are repeated in the Mtu. (iii, 138.16). In the Lal. V., the bodhisattva Siddhārtha is reminded of the pranidhāna that he had made in his previous existences : " I will attain the immortal, undecaying, pain-free bodhi, and free the world from all pain."¹⁴⁴ The bodhisattva Dharmākara's pranidhāna in the Su. Vy. is more elaborate.¹⁴⁵ He aspires to free all creatures from the fear of being reborn in a state of woe as animals, pretas, asuras or denizens of purgatory. He expresses such earnest wishes as the following : " May all beings be of a golden complexion ! May human beings be equal to the devas in every respect ! May all beings possess the wonder-working Powers in such perfection as to be able to traverse many buddha-fields in a moment ! May they have the power of remembering their former existences ! May they possess the supernal organ of sight and see many worlds and universes ! May they obtain the supernal organ of hearing and listen to the words of the preachers in many buddha-fields ! May they acquire the power of discerning the thoughts of others ! May they be free from the notion of possession and property, even with regard to their own bodies ! May they be firmly established in Righteousness (samyaktva) till they attain the great final Liberation !¹⁴⁶ May they not know even the name of Evil (akuçala) ! May they be blessed with great bodily strength ! May they enjoy supreme felicity ! May they not be born as females! May they be free from pain and keep all their faculties unimpaired! May they never turn back from the quest of Enlightenment! 147

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These are a few “wishes”, selected from the long list of miscellaneous aspirations, which the *bodhisattva* Dharmākara cherishes for himself and for the beings, who should be born in his buddha-field in the remote future. It is clear that the concept of *praṇidhāna* has been considerably extended and amplified by the author of the *Su. Vy.* and the sect to which he belonged. But the most detailed formula of a *bodhisattva's praṇidhāna* is found in the *Da. Bhū.*, which mentions ten Wishes or Aspirations.148 Each *praṇidhāna* is characterised as “great” (*mahā-praṇidhāna*), and certain epithets are also applied to it, viz. : “Wide and comprehensive as the element of the phenomena, co-terminous with the element of Space (ether), dwelling on infinite futurity, uninterrupted for the entire number of æons and the Buddhas to be born.” These ten *praṇidhānas* may be summarized as follows:—

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(1) To provide for the worship of all the Buddhas without exception.

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(2) To maintain the religious Discipline that has been taught by all the Buddhas and to preserve the teaching of the Buddhas.

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(3) To see all the incidents in the earthly career of a Buddha.

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(4) To realise the Thought of Enlightenment, to practise all the duties of a *bodhisattva*, to acquire all the *pāramitās* and purify all the stages of his career.149

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(5) To mature all beings 150 and establish them in the knowledge of the Buddha, viz. all the four classes of beings who are in the six states of existence.

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(6) To perceive the whole Universe.

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(7) To purify and cleanse all the buddha-fields.

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(8) To enter on the Great Way and to produce a common thought and purpose in all *bodhisattvas*.

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(9) To make all actions of the body, speech and mind fruitful and successful.

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(10) To attain the supreme and perfect Enlightenment and to preach the Doctrine.

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The later writers seem to have preferred a simple form of *praṇidhāna* to the prolix and grandiose declarations of the *Su. Vy.* and the *Da. Bhū.* Kṣemendra describes several persons as making a *praṇidhāna* “for the acquisition of *bodhi* and the liberation of the world”, when they give away wealth, certain limbs of their bodies, or their lives, for the benefit of others.¹⁵¹ But the importance of the idea of *praṇidhāna* was realised in an increasing degree in course of time, as *praṇidhāna* was finally incorporated in the lists of the *bodhisattva’s balas* (Powers), *vaçitās* (Might, Sovereignties), and *pāramitās* (Perfections).¹⁵² Thus did the Buddhist philosophers evince their appreciation of the Will as a factor in spiritual progress.

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*Vyākaraṇa* or *Vyākṛti*.—According to the accepted doctrine, a *bodhisattva* must declare his *praṇidhāna* in the presence of a living Buddha, who then predicts his future success in attaining Enlightenment. This “Prediction” is called *vyākaraṇa* or *vyākṛti*. The Tibetan equivalent is *luṅ-bstan-pa*, which means “precept, inspired command, prophecy” (Tib. Dicy. Das, 1216*a*). The idea of *vyākaraṇa* seems to have fallen into abeyance in course of time, as Çāntideva does not attach any importance to it.

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The typical formula for such a prediction is given in the *Sad. Pu*.¹⁵³ Gautama Buddha’s prophecy with regard to Çāriputra’s future Buddhahood is uttered in these words: “O Çāriputra, at a future period, after the lapse of immeasurable, inconceivable, innumerable æons, when you have learned the true Doctrine from hundred thousand *nayutas* of *koṭis* of Buddhas, worshipped them in various ways, and completed this discipline (or career) of a *bodhisattva*, you will be a *Tathāgata* who will bear the name of Padmaprabha. You will become a perfectly enlightened Buddha, venerable, perfect in knowledge and conduct, knower of all the worlds, peerless trainer of men who need discipline, teacher of devas and men, a Buddha worthy of adoration....¹⁵⁴ The field of that Buddha will be called *Viraja* (pure). The duration of his life will be twelve intermediate *kalpas*. After his final Liberation, his religion will endure for thirty-two intermediate *kalpas*, and the counterfeit of that religion will also last for as many intermediate *kalpas*.” Another shorter formula, which describes the perfect Buddha in different terms, is found in the *Ava. Ça*. It seems to be later in date than that given in the *Sad. Pu*. It runs thus: “By this thought of Enlightenment, the Root of Good, and by this renunciation of everything that can be given away, Pūrṇa will realise bodhi after three asaṃkhyeyas of kalpas and fulfil the six pāramitās, cultivated with great Love. He will be a perfectly enlightened Buddha, Pūrṇabhadra by name, endowed with the ten Powers, the four Grounds of Self-confidence, and the three special and characteristic Fields of Mindfulness, together with great Love.” 155 These details are communicated by the Buddha in each “Prediction”, which varies according to the time and the individual.156 It is a Buddha’s duty to give such a vyākaraṇa before he dies.157 A bodhisattva, who has received such a Prediction, can attain Wisdom more easily than others.158 The prophecy may also be made in the bodhisattva’s absence.159 Curiously enough, the deva Indra is also described as uttering such a prediction 160; but, as a general rule, vyākaraṇa is the prerogative of a perfect Buddha. Kṣemendra records many vyākaraṇas, couched in very short and simple terms, which were made by Gautama Buddha with regard to the future of Puṇyabhadra, Madhurasvara and Sumati, and also of a hare.161

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It must be noted that the vyākaraṇa assumes the theory or doctrine of a bodhisattva’s rebirth in future existences. He will cultivate many virtues and acquire knowledge and wisdom during many lives to come. Most Buddhist writers divide living beings into five classes (gatis, goings, modes or states of existence): the devas, the human beings, the pretas, the animals and the denizens of the purgatories.162 Some authors also mention a sixth class, the asuras (“demons, titans, furious spirits”). Birth as an asura is regarded as a state of misery in the Su. Vy., but the asuras are associated with the devas by Śāntideva.163 Now a bodhisattva cannot (as a rule) be reborn in a purgatory, or as an animal or a preta. These are the three states of woe. He will therefore be born in the cycle of transmigration or reincarnation as a deva or a human being till he attains bodhi. This doctrine of rebirth, which is not found in the Vedas, suddenly makes its appearance in the Śatapatha-Brāhmaṇa, in which the stress is laid on the idea of repeated deaths (punar-mṛtyu).164 The theory is nowhere discussed as a debatable question, and no arguments are adduced for or against it. The dogma was regarded as self-evident and axiomatic. It has been suggested that it was borrowed by the Aryan immigrants from the aboriginal inhabitants of India, or that it may have been the popular belief of the lower strata of Aryan society.¹⁶⁵ The Indian philosophers adopted and elaborated it in the seventh and eighth centuries B.C. Whatever the origin of the idea may be, it forms the starting-point and the basis of Buddhist philosophy and religion. The series of lives in the past is declared to be without a beginning,¹⁶⁶ and that is all that is vouchsafed to us in the way of argument.

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A *bodhisattva* will thus die and be reborn many times in the different worlds and universes, which are supposed to exist. But an initial problem must be discussed before we proceed further. The Buddhist philosophers teach that a human being has no *ātman* (Pāli : *attan*), but consists of five *skandhas*¹⁶⁷ (Aggregates), which are all impermanent and non-substantial. The word *ātman* has usually been translated as "soul", and the question has been asked: "If a *bodhisattva* has no soul, who and what survives death? How can he be reborn? What is the principle of identity in his numerous existences?"

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The five *skandhas* (Pāli : *khandha*), which Gautama Buddha himself is said to have mentioned in his second sermon, are as follows :—¹⁶⁸

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(a) *Rūpa* : ("form," "matter," "material qualities," "das Sinnliche," "the body," etc).

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(b) *Vedanā* : ("feeling" or "sensation", or both).

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(c) *Saṃjñā* : ("perception" or "ideas"). Th. Stcherbatsky, citing the *Abhidharma-koça*, defines *saṃjñā* as "operations of abstract thought", "that which abstracts a common characteristic sign from the individual objects".

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(d) *Saṃskārāḥ*.—This untranslatable term has been variously rendered¹⁶⁹ as "plastic forces", "syntheses," "pre-natal forces," "potentialities," "conformations," "mental confections," "conditions," "precedent conditions," "complexes of consciousness," "activities," "activities and capabilities," "mental activities," "actions," "synergies," "dispositions," "pre-dispositions," "die Taten," "die psychische Gestaltungen," "die Hervorbringungen," "les concepts," "die Gestaltungen," "die gestaltenden Kräfte," "die Kräfte oder Prozesse," "impressions," "volitions," "volitional complexes," "constituents," "mentations," "aggregates," "les formations," "die Unterscheidungen," "Unterbewusstsein (latente Bildekräfte)," "conceptions," "a complex including will, attention, faith and other conative groups," "die Betätigungen," "die Willensakte," "constituents of being," "potencies," "the fashion or forms of the perceiving mind,” “die verborgenen Prädispositionen,” “les dispositions morales,” “the grosser conditions precedent to thought, speech and action,” “Geistige Gebilde (Willenstätigkeiten),” “merit and demerit,” “mental co-efficients,” “mental qualities,” “actions or deeds,” “l’idée,” “volitions and other faculties,” “energies,” “co-ordinated energies,” “productions,” etc. etc.

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The Pāli word *saṅkhāra*, derived from the root “*kṛ*”, literally denotes either (1) that which is put together, compounded, conditioned, produced by a combination of causes (= *saṅkhata*), or (2) that which puts together or creates. In the passive sense, it means “phenomena, physical or material life, all conditioned things, which have been made up by pre-existing causes” (Pāli Dicy. s.v.). In its active signification, the word is employed to denote the fourth of the five *skandhas* and the second of the twelve *nidānas* (Causes) in the formula of *pratītya-samutpāda* (Dependent Origination). As a *skandha*, it has been explained thus: “The mental concomitants, or adjuncts, which come, or tend to come, into consciousness at the uprising of a *citta* or unit of cognition . . . The concrete mental syntheses, called *saṅkhārā*, tend to take on the implication of synergies, of purposive intellection” (Pāli Dicy.) R. C. Childers and D. T. Suzuki identify this *skandha* with the fifty odd “mental properties or elements”, which are mentioned in a late metaphysical treatise (*phasso vedanā* etc., etc.).¹⁷⁰ This irrelevant catalogue does not throw any light on the precise meaning of the term, and it need not be taken seriously. A. B. Keith thinks that “the root conception is the impressions resulting in dispositions, pre-dispositions, or latent tendencies, which will bear fruition in action in due course.”¹⁷¹ R. O. Franke states his conclusion thus: “*Saṅkhāra* : das psychische Hervorbringen der Anschauungs-Auffassungsformen, d.h. Vorstellungen, durch den Geist des ‘Nichtwissenden’ (d.h. des über das Wesen der Dinge Unaufgeklärten), resp. auch die Vorgestellten (und nur in der Vorstellung existierenden) Dinge selbst bedeutet.”¹⁷² P. Oltramare says: “*Les samskāra* sont les predispositions et les tendances qui expliquent le *dharma* actual par un des *dharma* anterieurs, et qui, dans le *dharma* actuel, préparent les *dharma* à venir.”¹⁷³

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In the Pāli canon, the term is explained in these words: “And why, O Monks, do you say ‘*saṅkhāras*’? Because they compose a compound (*saṅkhatam abhisaṅkharonti*). They compose the body (*rūpa*) into the body-compound, feelings (*vedanā*)

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into the feeling-compound, perception (*saññā*) into the perception-compound, and consciousness or soul (*viññāṇa*) into the consciousness-compound”.¹⁷⁴ In another passage, three *saṅkhāras* are mentioned: “*puññ-ābhisaṅkhāra*,” “*apuññ-ābhisaṅkhāra*” and “*āneñj-ābhisaṅkhāra*”, which have been interpreted as “act of merit”, “act of demerit” and “stationary act”.¹⁷⁵ The *Dhammasaṅgaṇi* includes a long list of about forty-seven qualities and powers in this *skandha*, and gives this general and comprehensive definition: “These and all other incorporeal, causally induced states, exclusive of the *khandhas* of feeling, perception and consciousness, are called the *khandha* of the *saṅkhāras*.”¹⁷⁶ This is very elaborate, but not helpful at all. The *Abhidharma-kośa* follows the same line of thought and explains thus: “*Le saṃskāra-skandha, c’est les saṃskāras différents des quatre autres skandhas. Les saṃskāras, c’est tout ce qui est conditionné; mais on réserve le nom de saṃskāra-skandha aux conditionnés, qui ne rentrent ni dans les skandhas de rūpa, de vedanā, de saṃjñā . . . ni dans le skandha de vijñāna.*”¹⁷⁷ Vasubandhu also mentions a *sūtra*, which identifies the *saṃskāras* with the six kinds of *cetanā* (active thought, intention, purpose, will); but he rejects that explanation and prefers his own omnibus definition, which is really no definition at all. The *M. Vy.* outdoes both the *Dhammasaṅgaṇi* and the *Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha* by enumerating ninety-four mental elements (*caitasikā dharmāḥ*), which are included in the *saṃskāra-skandha*.¹⁷⁸ The Tibetan equivalent is *hdu-byed*, which is explained by S. C. Das as “that which is or seems to be compounded, as opposed to the simple and elementary, anything pertaining to either body, speech or mind that can be analysed. It is thus particularized: mental association, thoughts, ideas, etc.; material or physical compounds; phrases, epigrams, sententious expressions, etc.” (*Tib. Dicy.*, 682). H. A. Jäschke leaves the word untranslated (*Tib. Dicy.*, 276). According to E. J. Eitel, the Chinese translate *saṃskāra* by a term which means “action, karma” (p. 144).

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So many unsatisfactory and bewildering explanations and translations, ancient and modern, seem to make confusion worse confounded. But the passage of the Pāli canon, cited above (*Samyutta-Nikāya*, iii, 87), and the dictum of the author quoted by Vasubandhu in the *Abhidharma-kośa* give a clue to the fundamental idea that the early Buddhists tried to convey by this term. The *saṃskāra-skandha* is the fashioner, the “together-maker”, the architect of the other four skandhas, not excepting even vijñāna. The author, whom Vasubandhu quotes, identifies it with cetanā. In the Milinda-pañha, cetanā is even substituted for the saṃskāra-skandha, and it is described as abhisaṅkharaṇa-lakkhaṇā (“characterized by purposive ‘putting together’”).179 Cetanā is defined in the Abhidharma-koça in exactly the same words as the saṃskāras : saṃskṛtam abhisaṃskaroti (that which puts together the compounds).180 It may therefore be inferred that the saṃskāra-skandha stands for cetanā (Volition) and can best be interpreted as “The Will”. An eminent scholar has complained that Buddhist literature has no word for “Will”.181 Perhaps this is the word for it. It is necessary to clear away the cobwebs spun round the term by the mediaeval commentators.

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(e) Vijñāna (Pāli viññāṇa : “consciousness,” “soul”). It has also been rendered as “mind”, “intellection,” etc. The Dhamma-saṅgaṇi defines it as “thought, ideation, the heart, that which is clear, ideation as the sphere of mind, as the faculty of mind, the appropriate element of representative intellection”.182 The Abhidharma-koça explains thus : “Vijñāna, c’est l’impression relative à chaque objet. Le vijñāna-skandha, c’est l’impression (vijñapti) relative à chaque objet, c’est la préhension nue (upalabdhi) de chaque objet. Le vijñāna-skandha, c’est six classes de connaissances, connaissance visuelle, auditive, olfactive, gustuelle, tactile, mentale.” 183

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Now these five skandhas are said to constitute a human being. They are severally and collectively impermanent and non-substantial, as there is no ātman in them. This doctrine of pudgala-nairātmya (non-substantiality or phenomenality of the individual) is taught by almost all the Buddhist philosophers.184 It is enunciated in Gautama Buddha’s second sermon, in which he declares that the five skandhas are devoid of ātman, and that a wise man should say with regard to rūpa, vedanā, saṃjñā, the saṃskāras and vijñāna : “This is not mine. I am not this. This is not ātman.” 185 These three simple sentences have been expanded and elaborated into the oft-repeated nairātmya theory. The Mahāyānist philosophers attach such great importance to this doctrine that they have elaborated a formula of no fewer than fourteen terms, which are regarded as synonyms of ātman, and which are declared to be non-existent and illusory. In this way, they have tried to “rub it in”, so that there may be no possibility of error or misunderstanding on this point. These fourteen terms are : ātman, sattva, jīva, jantu, puruṣa, poṣa, manuja, kārāpaka, mānava, vedaka, kāraka, vedayitṛka, jānaka and paçyaka.186 These redundant words may be translated collectively: “being, individual, person, agent, doer, knower, beholder, one-who-makes-another-do, one-who-makes-another-know.” It is held that a bodhisattva, who does not believe in the ātman, will find it easy to get rid of sensual desire, pride and egotism in all its forms (the idea of “I” and “Mine”).187 The theory is thus considered to be conducive to spiritual progress. The Buddhist philosophers regard it as an essential and fundamental principle of their systems. The heresy of sat-kāya-dṛṣṭi must be destroyed before the first step towards perfection can be taken. This term sat-kāya-dṛṣṭi means “belief in permanent substantial individuality”. It is the bête noire of all Buddhist writers of the Hinayāna and the Mahāyāna.188 Both schools agree in condemning this wrong view as the root of all evil. The Pra. Pā. Aṣṭa. goes so far as to declare that all the sixty-two wrong speculative opinions, which Gautama Buddha rejected, are included in this one monstrous error of sat-kāya-dṛṣṭi.189 It is compared to a mountain with twenty peaks, as a person may harbour the following four false notions with regard to each of the five skandhas : 190

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(1) This skandha (rūpa, etc.) is I.
(2) I have this skandha.
(3) This skandha is the essence of Me.
(4) The essence of Me is in this skandha.

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It may be asked how a bodhisattva is reborn and makes spiritual progress during many lives, if there is no “soul”. This difficulty has arisen from the regrettable mistake of translating ātman by the English word “soul”. The idea has gained ground that the Buddhist philosophers do not believe in “the soul”, and at the same time teach that a bodhisattva goes through a long series of rebirths during many æons. This illogical and absurd position has been made the butt of ridicule and criticism. But it is certain that the Mahāyānist writers believed in the continuity of personal identity between one life and the next. They assert the principal of personal identity in the most unmistakable terms. They identify Gautama Buddha and others with the persons that figure in the stories of his past lives. Thus Buddha says at the end of a story: “I was that Viçvantara, and that priest was Devadatta.” 191 The Super-knowledge (abhijñā) of pūrva-nivāsānusmṛti-jñāna (knowledge of previous existences) 192 would also be an impossible and meaningless acquisition, if the person were not the same in each life, and if he did not know and feel that he was the same, just as a normal person is conscious of personal identity in the course of his or her life on earth.

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But it may be asked: “How is this possible, if there is no ‘soul’ that survives death?” This relevant question may be answered by declaring once for all that the Buddhist Sanskrit writers teach the existence of the “soul” in the ordinary sense of that word, but that they deny the existence of “spirit” as an immutable, non-composite, unconditioned, noumenal, absolute Substance, exempt from the law of change and causality. Ātman should be translated as “Spirit”, and not as “soul”. When the Buddhists condemned and combated the ātman doctrine, they meant that they did not believe in the ātman as it was described in the Upaniṣads and the treatises of the Vedānta system. The Chāndogya Upaniṣad declares that the ātman is immortal (8, 14, page 510—tad brahma tad amṛtam sa ātmā). The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad also speaks of “that ātman, that Immortal, that Brahman, that All”. The Kaṭha Upaniṣad teaches that the Ātman (which is also Brahman) is undecaying and unchangeable. Similar ideas are expressed in several other passages of the Upaniṣads. 193 But the Buddhists made no exception to the universal law of change and relativity, and they carried on a vigorous polemic against this ātman-brahman doctrine.

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Now it is clear that ātman in this sense should be translated in philosophical language as “Reality, the Absolute”, and in religious phraseology as “Spirit”, as in the Biblical saying, “God is Spirit.” 194 The human “soul”, which thinks, feels and wills, does not belong to this category of pure “Spirit”, as it is subject to change and experiences pain and pleasure in this life and after death. This “soul” survives death and represents the principle of personal identity in non-Buddhist systems. The Buddhists recognise its existence and call it vijñāna. This term has been translated by the cumbrous and unwieldy word “consciousness”. But it is advisable to interpret it as “soul”. It is distinctly stated in the Pāli canon that vijñāna is that skandha, which continues to exist after death and enters the mother’s womb for the next re-birth (mātu kucchim na okkamissatha, etc.). 195 Māra, the deva of Desire and Death, could not find the vijñāna of Godhika and Vakkali after the death of those monks, though he looked for it everywhere. They had attained final and complete *nirvāṇa*, and their *vijñāna* was not reinstated in a new embryo.196 *Vijñāna* thus corresponds to the "soul", as this latter word is understood by most non-Buddhist religious teachers. "Soul" is defined as "the spiritual part of man regarded as surviving after death and as susceptible of happiness or misery in a future state" (New English Dictionary, 1919, IX, i, p. 461c).

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