Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Early History of the Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, from Sanskrit and Bengali Sources c10: Chapter VI. The Ritualism and Devotional Practices of Bengal Vaiṣṇavism

Early History of the Vaiṣṇava Faith and Movement in Bengal, from Sanskrit and Bengali Sources c10

Language
English

Contents

Chapter VI. The Ritualism and Devotional Practices of Bengal Vaiṣṇavism

1. The Hari-bhakti-vilāsa

c10.s1.1

The entire body of the ritual and devotional practices of Caitanyaism has been codified by Gopāla Bhaṭṭa,¹ one of the six Vṛndāvana Gosvāmins, in his elaborate and erudite *Hari-bhakti-vilāsa*. We have already spoken briefly of its scope and extent; but since it is an almost exhaustive metrical compendium of the corpus of Vaiṣṇava Ācāra and Anuṣṭhāna, which aims at an authoritative exposition of most of the compulsory and occasional rites and ceremonies of the cult, a more detailed account of its content is necessary to indicate the ceremonial requirements connected with certain aspects of the faith. Although the highest form of Caitanyaism dispenses with mere Śāstric rule and outward ceremony, and lays stress upon an inner and more esoteric way of realisation, the faith does not at the same time ignore the impulse to devotional acts which comes from the injunction of the Vaiṣṇava Śāstra and outward forms of piety. The comparatively mechanical process of the Vaidhī Sādhana-bhakti, which depends upon Vidhi or injunction of the Śāstra, is an important step to the highest type of spontaneous Prema-bhakti;² and as such it demanded the attention and careful treatment of the professed theologians of the sect. An elaborate scheme of devotional acts, therefore, is to be prescribed for the less enlightened and larger mass of devoted followers; and the task was accomplished with such success by Gopāla Bhaṭṭa, in collaboration probably with Sanātana, that this stupendous compilation is now regarded to be the highest ritual authority of the Bengal school of Vaiṣṇavism.

c10.s1.2

¹ On the authorship of the work, see above pp. 136-40.

c10.s1.3

² See the concluding remarks of our author, below.

c10.s1.4

As the *Hari-bhakti-vilāsa*, the 'Charm of Devotion of Hari', epitomises Vaiṣṇava Ācāra, it naturally includes in its scope a great deal of Smṛti topics; and in this sense it may be regarded as the most important Smṛti work of the Bengal school of Vaiṣṇavism. The name of the work itself may have been suggested by that of the *Sarasvatī-vilāsa* of Gajapati Pratāparudra; but in its content, method and treatment, it differs a great deal from this and other orthodox Smṛti works. It professes to follow the Śruti and the Smṛti, but since the theology of the Bengal school places a somewhat different interpretation upon these terms, it draws very largely upon the Purāṇas, especially upon Purāṇas which are regarded as canonical sources by this school. Little heed is paid to the orthodox Smṛti tradition, for it evolves a Smṛti of its own on the basis of its own sectarian scriptures, although it agrees with the later orthodox Smṛti-Nibandhas in accepting the Purāṇas as an authoritative source. Like the orthodox Smṛti, again, of Bengal, which absorbed very largely Tāntric ideas, rites and formulas since the time of Raghunandana, most of the rituals and ceremonies of this Vaiṣṇava Smṛti appears to have been profoundly influenced by the tenets and practices of Tantra, which must have been widely and deeply spread in Bengal at this time.

c10.s1.5

The work consists of twenty chapters or Vilāsas, and the distribution of subject-matter given below will sufficiently indicate its general scope and object. The chapters deal in their order with the following topics: I. The Preceptor, Disciple and Mantra, II. Initiation or Dīkṣā, III-IV. The Daily Devotional Acts, V-VI. Daily Morning Worship, VII. Offering of flowers, leaves, etc., in worship, VIII. Use of incense, ringing of bells and other rituals connected with worship, IX. Midday Rites and Duties, and Partaking of the Food-offering (Mahāprasāda) dedicated to the Deity, X. The characteristics of the Vaiṣṇava devotee and Vaiṣṇava religious practices, XI. The Evening Service, Rules of pious conduct and Efficacy of the sacred Name and of Bhakti, XII. Fortnightly Fasts and Observances, XIII. Rites and Duties connected therewith, XIV - XVI. Monthly Observances throughout the year, including Festivals, XVII. Puraścaraṇa (preparatory ritual) and its initiation, XVIII. Construction of Images, and XX. Construction of Temples. It will be seen from this enumeration that the topics of the work are peculiar to itself, and differ from those of an orthodox Smṛti treatise. It is of the nature of a guide-book to the Vaiṣṇava devotee rather than a work on social and legal customs and usages. While it enumerates the compulsory and occasional duties and ceremonies, as well as the rules for everyday service, it omits, for instance, all treatment of the Smārta purificatory rites, known as the Saṃskāras (even of the Vaiṣṇava form of the Śrāddha or funeral ceremony): but it devotes one chapter to the peculiar Vaiṣṇava rite of Initiation or Dīkṣā. As Festivals from an important part of the religious practice, they are treated fairly fully, although it is remarkable that while the non-Vaiṣṇava Śiva-rātri is included, no reference is made to the important Vaiṣṇava festival of Rāsa-yātrā. It has nothing to say about Caitanya-worship or worship of Caitanya's images which became a remarkable feature of the later development of the faith. Of the worship of Kṛṣṇa as such, or construction of images of Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa, it has equally little to say.¹

c10.s1.6

¹ See above pp. 137-29.

c10.s1.7

The work is composed in the usual Anuṣṭubh Śloka metre, but each rule or prescription is supported and illustrated copiously by long quotations from the Purāṇas and other scriptures. The main contents of the work can be summarised briefly, but the quotations swell the work into an enormous bulk. The second of the four opening stanzas of the work names Gopāla Bhaṭṭa, a disciple of Prabodhānanda, as compiling it to satisfy Raghunātha-dāsa, Rūpa and Sanātana. The fourth verse refers to the venerable Vaiṣṇavas residing in the circle of Mathurā and to Kāśīśvara and Lokanātha then living at Vṛndāvana. This is followed by a synopsis of nearly 140 heads of subjects dealt with in the work, after which the first Vilāsa begins with the topic of Mantra-Dīkṣā or initiation of a Vaiṣṇava. The running commentary on the work, entitled Digdarśanī, is attributed to Sanātana Gosvāmins, but no name of the author is found in the commentary itself. We give below a brief survey of the principal contents of the work, chapter by chapter, and it will fairly indicate the peculiar character of the various religious practices of Bengal Vaiṣṇavism.

c10.s1.8

Vilāsa I

c10.s1.9

The subjects dealt with in the first Vilāsa are: the necessity of a Guru or Preceptor; the qualifications respectively of the Guru and the Śiṣya or Disciple; greatness of the Bhagavat who is the supreme object of worship; efficacy of the Mantra or mystic formula which has the Bhagavat for its object; persons qualified to receive the Mantra; the method of finding out the nature of the particular Mantra, to be imparted by the Guru to the Śiṣya, and the purification of particular Mantras.

c10.s1.10

The first qualification that a man requires for becoming a Vaiṣṇava is Mantra-Dīkṣā or Initiation for the purpose of receiving the proper devotional formula of the sect from the qualified Guru or Preceptor. For the acquirement of Bhakti to Kṛṣṇa, which is regarded as the highest object of life, a worthy preceptor is of the greatest importance, for without resorting to the feet of the preceptor, people become overwhelmed by hundreds of perils, like merchants without a pilot in the sea. A long list of the characteristics of a good preceptor, such as good descent, purity, worthy conduct, continence, vast learning, clean dress, young age, physical beauty, knowledge of ritualistic practices (prayoga-vid), skill in worship (arcāsu kṛta-dhiḥ) etc., is compiled from such works as Mantra-muktāvalī, Agastya-saṃhitā and Viṣṇu-smṛti. The Guru is to be preferably a householder (gṛhastha). He should be versed in Tāntric lore, capable of Mantroddhāra and Mantra-saṃhāra, must have a deep knowledge of mystic diagrams and spells, and should know how to perform Puraścaraṇa and Homa. A Brahman preceptor who can impart the Mantra to all castes is highly desirable. In his absence, worthy people of the Kṣatriya and Vaiśya castes may act as preceptors to men of their own or lower castes respectively, while a Śūdra preceptor can initiate only a man of his own caste. Thus, Anuloma initiation is permitted, but Pratiloma initiation is expressly prohibited (prātilomyaṃ na dīkṣayet) on the authority of a text cited from the Nārada-pañcarātra. In other words, a man of a higher caste can never accept initiation from a man of a lower caste In expressing this view, the author of the Hari-bhakti-vilāsa recognises the implications of the Varṇāśrama-Dharma, although his attitude is liberal enough to permit persons other than Brahmans to act as preceptors to men of his own or lower castes.¹ The author, however, is clear in stating that in no case, even a Brahman, who is not a Vaiṣṇava, should be accepted as a preceptor. On the authority of the Padma-purāṇa a Vaiṣṇava is defined as one who has taken the initiation relating to Viṣṇu (Viṣṇu-dīkṣā) and who is devoted to the worship of Viṣṇu. Here, as well as in what follows, our author is somewhat singular in emphasising devotion to Viṣṇu, which form of the deity is apparently exalted even over that of Kṛṣṇa. This fact is noteworthy, because the other Gosvāmins and followers of Caitanya regard the form of Viṣṇu to be a lower manifestation than that of Kṛṣṇa, who in its fundamental creed is the exclusively highest deity and the only object of worship. This partiality for Viṣṇu, which is distinct throughout this work, is presumably due to the lingering influence of the Southern Vaiṣṇavism of the Śrīvaiṣṇava sect, to which Gopāla Bhaṭṭa, hailing from the South, is said to have originally belonged. If this surmise is correct, then the authorship of this work can hardly be ascribed to Sanātana, whose attitude towards Viṣṇu does not agree with what is expressed here so distinctly.

c10.s1.11

¹ Caitanya himself does not appear to have encouraged monopoly by any particular caste or person of the function of a spiritual teacher. He was willing to learn from Rāmānanda-rāya, and himself selected Raghunātha-dāsa, a Kāyastha, and Rūpa-Sanātana of doubtful social status, to become the highest spiritual teachers of the faith.

c10.s1.12

Disciples are also to be carefully selected. Their character, lineage, physical beauty, attitude of deep reverence, pious inclination, health, youth etc. should be counted. Long lists are furnished not only of such desirable qualities but also of characteristics which are undesirable. Persons lacking the desirable qualifications, and also those who are addicted to the objects of senses, acquire wealth by evil means or work hard to gain their livelihood (kaṣṭa-vṛtti), are to be rejected. The Hayaśīrṣa-pañcarātra is quoted to show that Mantras are never to be imparted to the Hetuvādin followers of Jaimini, of Kapila, of the atheist Gautama, of Sugata (the Buddha) and of Mahāvīra.

c10.s1.13

Before people enter into the relationship of preceptor and disciple, at least one year's constant companionship on their part is necessary for the discovery of each other's qualities and defects. During this time the person desiring discipleship should serve and honour the preceptor by various acts of devotion and service, of which a long list is given. The name of the Guru is not to be lightly taken; and, in uttering it one must prefix it by oṃ śrī and suffix it by the phrase viṣṇu-pāda, in accordance with the direction of the Nārada-pañcarātra. When the prescribed period has elapsed, the disciple should pray to the preceptor to initiate him in the Mantra of Viṣṇu; for Viṣṇu is the highest god and the only saviour, and alone deserves the epithet of the Bhagavat. Viṣṇu is incomparable, and one who compares him with other deities is a low-born infidel and is sure to go to hell! The worship of a god other than Viṣṇu is compared to saluting a Caṇḍāla woman rather than one's own mother, and to taking poison instead of nectar. The Śrī-Vaiṣṇava Mantra, therefore, is highly glorified as the means of attaining all supernatural powers. There are two kinds of Viṣṇu-Mantra; namely, the Mantra of eight (*oṃ namo nārāyaṇāya*) and twelve syllables (*oṃ namo bhagavate nārāyaṇāya*) respectively. The former is called the Mantra-rāja, because it is highly potent; and those who utter it go to the abode of Viṣṇu for good. This great Mantra is called the essence of the Vedānta; it is inseparable from Viṣṇu himself and comprises all lores and gods. The Mantra of twelve syllables is also highly efficacious. Similar also are the Mantras of Narasiṃha and Rāma. The Śrī-Kṛṣṇa Mantra of eighteen syllables (*klīṃ kṛṣṇāya govindāya gopī-jana-vallabhāya svāhā*) is also very potent; for the real Svarūpa of Kṛṣṇa is described in it as revealing the world with the help of Svāhā, which means Māyā. In the Gopāla-tāpanī the universe is mystically said to have originated from the component part of this Mantra, namely, water was evolved from the syllable *ka*, earth from *la*, fire from *i*, the moon from the nasal *vindu* or *anusvāra*, and the sun from its sound (Nāda), the sky from the syllables *kṛṣṇa*, air from the syllable *ya*, cows from the word *govindāya*, the fourteen branches of learning from *gopī-janāya*, and the sexes from the word *vallabhāya*!

c10.s1.14

Before imparting a Mantra to the disciple, the preceptor should be guided by several considerations. Of these the selection of worthy recipients is of primary importance. Gopāla Bhaṭṭa holds that chaste (*sādhvī*) women and noble-minded (*sad-dhī*) Śūdras are entitled to receive initiation into Tāntric Mantras, and quotes several authorities from the Purāṇas and Saṃhitās to support this view. People of mixed or low castes, including even the lowest Caṇḍāla, can also enjoy this privilege. The preceptor should also find out the suitable nature of the Mantra to be imparted and determine whether it is favourable or not, in accordance with the Tāntric principle of a Mantra being of twenty types, such as Siddha, Sādhya, Susiddha, etc.¹ This is to be accomplished by the purely Tāntric method described in the Śaradā-tilaka, by means of a rectangular Maṇḍala, in the sixteen Koṣṭhas of which the letters of the alphabet are to be written.² Some of the Mantras are declared to be beneficent and some harmful, while others are deficient and impure. The latter kind, therefore, requires Saṃskāra or purification, which consists of the ten operations of Janana, Jīvana, Tāḍana, Rodhana, Abhiṣeka, Vimalīkaraṇa, Āpyāyana, Tarpaṇa, Dīpana and Gupti, described in the Śaradā-tilaka, which work is again quoted extensively. But there are, of course, certain Mantras which are beneficent in themselves and do not require any Saṃskāra.

c10.s1.15

¹ The twenty kinds are: Siddha, Sādhya, Susiddha, Ari, Siddhā-siddha, Siddha-sādhya, Siddha-susiddha, Siddhāri, Sādhya-siddha, Sādhya-sādhya, Sādhya-susiddha, Sādhyāri, Susiddha-siddha, Susiddha-sādhya, Susiddha-susiddha, Susiddhāri, Ari-siddha, Ari-sādhya, Ari-susiddha and Ari-ari!

c10.s1.16

² The method, with a diagram of the Maṇḍala, is explained in Syamacharan Kaviratna's ed. of the Hari-bhakti-vilāsa (Calcutta 1911-12), p. 40-41.

c10.s1.17

Vilāsa II

c10.s1.18

The second Vilāsa deals with the mode of initiation or Dīkṣā, in accordance with directions, we are told, of the Krama-dīpikā. A man without initiation is not entitled to worship, for the act of initiation destroys all sins and bestows divine knowledge.

c10.s1.19

For initiation careful choice of the proper month, day, planetary influence and so forth is essential. The months of Jyaiṣṭha, Āṣāḍha and Bhādra should generally be avoided. No initiation should take place on an intercalary month (Malamāsa) during which religious ceremonies are forbidden. Tuesday and Saturday are inauspicious. The stars, such as Rohiṇī, Śravaṇā, Ārdrā, the three Uttaras (Uttara-phālguni, Uttarāṣāḍha, Uttara-bhādrapada), Puṣya and Śatabhiṣā are declared to be auspicious; but some add Aśvinī, Svāti, Viśākhā, Hastā and Jyeṣṭhā. With regard to the Tithi or lunar day, the second, fifth and sixth days of the fortnight are specially favourable; but the Dīkṣā can also be performed on the twelfth and the thirteenth day: while some authorities prescribe also the seventh and the tenth day, as well as the day of the full-moon. In holy places, during eclipses, in the Tantu-parvan in Śrāvaṇa and Dāmana-parvan in Caitra, and on the acquisition of a worthy preceptor, who is rare in this world, no discrimination of time is necessary. The direction of the Guru regarding all these should be strictly followed; for if the Guru permits, any day, month or place is auspicious.

c10.s1.20

The Śāradā-tilaka enjoins four forms of initiation, namely, Kriyāvatī, Kalātmā, Varṇamayi and Vedhamayi. Of these Gopāla Bhaṭṭa is now concerned with the form called Kriyāvatī. For the purpose of this ceremony a Maṇḍapa, measuring seven cubits and having an altar (Vedikā) in it, is to be built. It must have eight flag-staffs with flags in eight directions, four doors, four portals (Toraṇa) consisting of Kṣīra-plants like Plakṣa; and it should be encircled by a thricely corded string of Kuśa-grass. On the north of this Maṇḍapa a square pit (Kuṇḍa) with three enclosures or girdles (Mekhalā), one marking line called neck (Kaṇṭha) and a cavity or Yoni, is to be dug. The measurements of the depth of the pit and of its Kaṇṭha and Yoni, as well as their position in relation to each other, are also given. But the size of the pit or Kuṇḍa should vary according to the Maṇḍapa, the directions of the Śāstras are to be strictly followed to avoid calamity. The Maṇḍapa is then to be sprinkled with Pañcagavya (milk, sour milk, butter, cow-dung and urine of the cow) and with fragrant water. On the altar of Vedikā of the Maṇḍapa is to be drawn a Dīkṣā-maṇḍala, consisting of the figure of an eight-petalled lotus bounded by three circles, twelve Rāśis (zodiacal signs), a four-footed seat (Pīṭha), four paths and doors embellished with Sobhā, Upaśobhā and Koṇa. After performing his morning duties, the Guru should place the conchshell (Śaṅkha) and things necessary for the ceremony in their proper places as described below. Then the Guru should worship his own Guru and Gaṇeśa, as well as the Pīṭha itself. He should then place Kuśa-grass and Śāli rice on the figured lotus, the ten Kalās of the fire¹ (symbolised by the letters beginning from y and ending with kṣ) on the Kuśa with appropriate Mantras, and the Kumbha or consecrated pitcher as directed. The twelve Kalās of the sun² (symbolised by the letters k to ṭh and the letters bh to ḍ in the reverse order) are then to be placed on the pitcher with certain incantations, and the pitcher worshipped. Then white flowers with sugar, rice, gold, gems and Kuśa-grass should be thrown into it. Filling it with holy water from some holy place, the sixteen Kalās of the moon³ (symbolised by the fourteen vowels, the Anusvāra and the Visarga) are to be placed and worshipped in the water. Mystic operations of the same nature are also to be performed in placing the conch-shell (Śaṅkha-sthāpana). Some water, mixed with eight kinds of perfume favoured by the deity, is to be taken into the conch-shell and poured into the pitcher, its mouth being then closed with a flat lid (Śarāva) and covered with flowers, twigs of the mango-tree and two pieces of cloth. The Bhagavat is then to be worshipped in the picher with various kinds of Nyāsas,⁴ with the exception of Karaṇa-nyāsa and Pīṭha-nyāsa. The Dīkṣā-homa (sacrifice or oblation appropriate to the Dīkṣā) is then to be performed 1,008 times in the Kuṇḍa after placing in it fire which is also worshipped elaborately in the Tāntric fashion. Details of this worship and a list of things necessary for such Homa, as well as quantities required, are also given. The preceptor should then allow the disciple, who has fasted and taken the vow, into the Maṇḍala, and performing the Mātṛkā-nyāsa on his body, give him instructions regarding this Nyāsa. The Guru will then contemplate the deity in the pitcher, perform 1,008 Japas, and after eating something will lie down to sleep. The Śiṣya also, contemplating his Guru and doing the Japas, should lie down by the side of his Guru on a piece of deer-skin placed on Kuśa-grass. All these are preliminaries to be performed on the day preceding that fixed for the actual Dīkṣā.

c10.s1.21

¹ The names of the ten Kalās are given as Dhūmrācis, Uṣmā, Jvalanī, Jvālinī, Visphuliṅgī, Suśrī, Surūpā, Kapilā, Havyavahā and Kavyavahā.

c10.s1.22

² The twelve Kalās are Tapanī, Tāpanī, Dhūmrā, Bhramarī, Jvālinī, Ruci, Suṣumṇā, Bhogadā, Viśvā, Bodhanī, Dhāriṇī and Kṣamā.

c10.s1.23

³ The sixteen Kalās are Amṛtā, Mānadā, Pūṣā, Tuṣṭi, Puṣṭi, Rati, Dhṛti, Śaśinī, Candrikā, Kānti, Jyotsnā, Śrī, Prīti, Aṅgadā, and Pūrṇāmṛtā.

c10.s1.24

⁴ It is difficult to translate this Tāntric word. It has been described generally as the mental assignment of the various parts of the body to the divinities, accompanied by Japa (muttering of formulas) and gestures.

c10.s1.25

On the day of the Dīkṣā the Guru should, again, worship the pitcher, his own Guru and various deities (such Gaṇeśa, Viṣvaksena, etc.) ; and, after performing Homa and Saṃhāra-mudrā,¹ he should sprinkle and consecrate (abhiṣeka) his disciple, and purify his body by Bhūta-śuddhi and by various ceremonies, Nyāsas and Mantras. Then, solicited by the disciple, the preceptor should dedicate the disciple to Kṛṣṇa, place sectarian marks, garlands etc. on his body, whisper the Mūla-Mantra thrice in his right ear, and infuse his own power into the disciple. The preceptor should then offer to the disciple the Mahāprasāda or food consecrated to the deity, and bless him. The disciple should repeat the Mantra imparted to him one hundred and eight times, and receive from the preceptor instructions with regard to his conduct and the conventions (Samaya) to be followed. The instructions are inviolable. Among them, secrecy regarding the Mantra, reverence to the Guru and to all Vaiṣṇavas, painting of sectarian Tilaka marks on the body, avoidance of all kinds of unclean food (such as fish and flesh), observance of the Ekādaśī and other fasts, daily reading of or listening to the Purāṇas, performance of such rites as Tāntriki Saṃdhyā, Bhūta-śuddhi and various kinds of Nyāsas, avoidance of all acts concerning deities other than Viṣṇu, as well as of such Tāntric Abhicāra acts as Uccāṭana, Vaśīkaraṇa, etc. are noteworthy. A list of 104 duties is compiled from the Viṣṇu-yāmala in this connexion. The Dīkṣā is completed with the disciple doing obeisance by falling prostrate (Daṇḍavat Praṇāma) at the feet of the preceptor, with offer of money and things as fee (Dakṣiṇā) to the preceptor and with feeding of Brahmans and friends.

c10.s1.26

¹ A Mudrā consists of particular positions or intertwinings of the fingers (24 in number) practised in religious worship (chiefly Tāntric).

c10.s1.27

The above mode of Dīkṣā is mainly Tāntric, and Gopāla Bhaṭṭa also admits it.

c10.s1.28

But another kind of Dīkṣā, called Paurāṇiki Dīkṣā, is also mentioned, the main outlines of which are thus summarised from the Varāha-purāṇa:

c10.s1.29

Testing of the disciple for one year; the disciple's prayer for Dīkṣā, and lying down by the side of the Guru on the bright tenth day of the month of Kārttika; determination of the good or bad effects of Mantra by the nature of dreams dreamt by the disciple; fasting on the next Ekādaśī day and visiting the temple on the next Dvādaśī morning after a bath; the drawing of a mystic Maṇḍala, Soḍaśāra or Navanābha Cakra (circle having sixteen spokes or nine naves), or an eight-petalled lotus; worship of Viṣṇu with other deities; placing of eight pitchers in eight directions with a ninth dedicated to Viṣṇu; sprinkling of the disciple with water from one of the nine pitchers, preferably from the ninth; making him enter the Maṇḍala (mystic circle) with his eyes covered, and purifying him with Bhūta-śuddhi and Tattva-nyāsa; performing of Homa with the incantation oṃ namo bhagavate viṣṇave sarva-rūpiṇe hum svāhā, and of the various Smārta Saṃskāras or sacraments; uncovering the eyes of the disciple and whispering the Mantra into his ears; and lastly, the offer of Dakṣiṇā to the Guru.

c10.s1.30

It should be noted that although Gopāla Bhaṭṭa prescribes this Purāṇic initiation on the basis of the *Varāha-purāṇa*, the ceremony in its employment of Tāntric operations and incantations is not free from obvious Tāntric influence.

c10.s1.31

In case of inability, elaborate ceremonies are dispensed with, and shorter ways are prescribed for what is called Saṃkṣipta-Dīkṣā. The Mantra, for instance, may be imparted to the disciple after sprinkling him with water from a pitcher placed in a Sarvatobhadra Maṇḍala, or with water from a consecrated lotus, or after performing Homa with grains, or even with words only.

c10.s1.32

The chapter concludes with an enumeration of the merits of the Mantra-Dīkṣā.

c10.s1.33

Vilāsa III

c10.s1.34

The third Vilāsa deals with the conduct and daily pious duties (*sadācāra*) of the initiated Vaiṣṇava devotee.

c10.s1.35

Waking up in the Brāhma-muhūrta (early dawn, between the 4th and 2nd Ghaṭikā before sunrise) with the name of Kṛṣṇa on his lips, the Vaiṣṇava devotee should wash his face, hands and feet, cleanse his teeth and change his clothes. He should then contemplate the feet of his spiritual preceptor and think of Kṛṣṇa. This meditation is called mental bath (Mānasa Snāna); it produces the merit of bathing in all the places of pilgrimage, and is, therefore, the best of all holy baths. He should utter verses from *Śrīmad-bhāgavata* (such as x. 90, 24; x. 46, 35 etc.) in praise of Kṛṣṇa. These verses are said to be very efficacious; but our author adds that although this is the prevailing custom, one may contemplate the deity in his own way in the form most desirable. Then he should perform morning obeisance (Prātaḥ-Praṇāma) no less than four times to the deity. This mode of morning prayer and contemplation (Prātar-Dhyāna) and its effects are described in detail by means of quotations from the Pañcarātra and other scriptures. The form of the deity to be contemplated should, according to one's inclination, be such as is described in the *Gopāla-tāpanī*, the *Śāradā-tilaka* and other sectarian and Tāntric works.

c10.s1.36

Then the devotee should go to the temple and rouse the deity by ringing the bells and citing verses from the *Bhāgavata*. After performing Nirājana (lustration or waving of lights as an act of adoration), he should remove the remains of the previous day's offerings (Nirmālya-apasāraṇa), with the exception of the offering of Tulasi leaves. If this is not done properly, atonement for the consequent sin is to be performed by Japa and Puraścaraṇa. The face of the deity is then to be washed by offering all the requisites for the purpose, namely, tooth-brush, tongue-scraper, earth for cleansing the hands, water, towel and Tulasi leaves. Then the Ārātrika (adoration by waving of lights etc.) is to be performed.

c10.s1.37

As soon as the sun rises, the devotee, singing Kṛṣṇa's name, should go out to a sacred bathing place. After answering the call of nature and cleaning himself with earth and water, about which elaborate directions are given, he should do the Vaiṣṇava Ācamana (sipping of water from the palm of the hand), wash his hand and feet and cleanse his teeth with appropriate Mantras by means of the twig of some sappy tree. The choice of such tooth-brushes and the avoidance of particular kinds on particular days are important. After this, he should do the Ācamana again, arrange and tie up his long tuft of hair (Śikhā) and take his bath which is compulsory, as well as necessary, for purity and health. One may bathe in a river, lake, pond, hill-stream or even with water drawn from a well. Placing fresh clothes, Kuśa-grass and Mṛttikā (earth) on the bank, the devotee should again wash his hand and feet, and having done Ācamana again, he should contemplate the sacred river, Gaṅgā, and make offerings with proper Mantras to the Tīrtha or place of bath. He should then enter the water, facing the current in the case of a river, or facing the sun in other cases. He should then invoke the Gaṅgā from the orb of the sun, and holding Kuśa-grass in hand, he should perform Prāṇāyāma (the three 'breath-exercises,' Pūraka, Recaka and Kumbhaka), meditate upon Kṛṣṇa's name, repeat the Mūla-mantra (oṃ namo nārāyaṇāya) and immerse himself in water twelve times. Gopāla Bhaṭṭa tells us that the mode of bath described above is partly Vedic and partly Tāntric, and then goes on to mention some other special modes in accordance with the Padma-purāṇa and other texts. For instance, the devotee may, after invoking the Gaṅgā in a square Maṇḍala, bathe with the repetition of certain Mantras. He may hold on his head the water with which the feet of his preceptor, his parents and Brahmans have been washed, or water with which the sacred Śālagrāma stone has been washed and which is fragrant with Tulasi leaves. He may take water in a conch-shell, and after drinking it a little, throw a portion of it on his own head; he may then pour water on his head with the Kumbha-Mudrā and with offer of libations of water to the gods.

c10.s1.38

After finishing his bath, the devotee should dry his body with a piece of cloth, and putting on fresh clothes he should sit down and do Ācamana again. He should put proper sectarian Tilaka marks on his body and perform Saṃdhyā (religious act to be performed at the three divisions of the day), according to the Vedic and Tāntric modes. In the case of the former mode, he should sit on a seat of Kuśa-grass facing the east, perform Prāṇāyāma thrice and repeat the Gāyatrī a thousand times, or a hundred times, or even ten times only. In the case of the latter mode (Tāntric), he is to offer libations of water thrice to Kṛṣṇa with the utterance of the Mūla-Mantra, and make offerings to Kṛṣṇa, residing in the orb of the sun, with the citation of the Kāma-gāyatrī (klim kāma-devāya vidmahe, puṣpa-bāṇāya-dhīmahi, tan no'naṅgaḥ pracodayāt). Leaving off with the word 'forgive' (kṣamasva), he should then make offerings to the sun. There is, however, according to some authorities, a different mode of the Tāntric Saṃdhyā. The devotee in this case should attain inner and outer purity by uttering the Hṛdaya-mantra (namaḥ), the Netra-mantra (vauṣaṭ), and the Astra-Mantra (phaṭ). Then libation of water is to be offered thrice to Kṛṣṇa, residing in the orb of the sun, with the citation of the Gopāla-gāyatrī (gopi-janāya vidmahe, gopi-janāya dhīmahi, tan naḥ kṛṣṇaḥ pracodayāt). The six parts of the Mantra are to be placed on the six limbs, namely, head, forehead, two eyes, two arms, two feet and the whole body. Contemplating Kṛṣṇa as enjoying the Rāsa-sport in the orb of the sun, the Vaiṣṇava should then extend his two hands and repeat the Gopāla-gāyatrī for a while. He should perform the Ṣaḍ-aṅga Nyāsa, Mudrās like Dhenu-mudra, utter the Pīṭha-mantra and offer libations of water (Tarpaṇa) one hundred and eight times, first for the satisfaction of the god and then for the whole world, including other gods, Pitṛs, saints and sages.

c10.s1.39

The merits of the holy bath are many, but its effects are enjoyable only by those who have faith in it. Otherwise, it becomes fruitless like the diving of fishermen.

c10.s1.40

Vilāsa IV

c10.s1.41

This Vilāsa continues the topic of daily devotional acts.

c10.s1.42

After performing the Saṃdhyā, the devotee should cleanse the temple, sprinkle and besmear it on all sides with cow-dung, earth and water. He should adorn it by drawing various kinds of figure, such as Maṇḍalas of lotus and Svastikas, with earth, Dhātu-rāga (coloured mineral), Varṇaka (pigment) and powder of various colours, placing flagstaffs and flags, fastening garlands and planting pillars of plaintain trees. The methods and results of these pious acts are described in detail. Then, after cleansing the utensils, clothes and seats of Viṣṇu in the manner described in the scriptures and Smṛtis, he should gather Tulasi leaves, flowers, twigs etc. necessary for worship. Regarding the plucking of flowers, Hārita is of opinion that flowers, which are plucked before one takes one's bath, are never acceptable to the gods, but Gopāla Bhaṭṭa thinks that Hārita's remark is applicable only to the midday bath. Gopāla Bhaṭṭa also differs from the *Padma-purāṇa* in the view expressed in the work that Tulasi leaves plucked before bath cannot be used in the worship of gods, unless they are sanctified by the Pañcagavya; for he thinks that there are other texts to the contrary.

c10.s1.43

Gopāla Bhaṭṭa then takes up the topic of bath at home (Gṛha-snāna) and ceremonies connected with it. Both cold and hot water, mixed with Tulasi leaves, may be used in house-bath, the former on the special occasion of Naimittika or Kāmya Snāna and the latter on all occasions. The efficacy of hot bath is supposed to lie in the fact that contact with fire lends additional sanctity to the water. Before bath, Āmalaki (Emblic Myrobalan), Tila (Sesamum) and Taila (Oil) should be used, except on forbidden days. The Vaiṣṇava should perform Ācamana, Prāṇāyāma and Nyāsa; and, summoning all the holy waters of Gaṅgā in the reservoir of water, he should think of self-purification by the holy Ganges proceeding from the feet of Kṛṣṇa. Then he should put on fresh clothes; elaborate instructions are given regarding the kind of clothes to be worn. He should then sit down in due form on a seat made of prescribed kinds of wood, besmear his body with the preparation of sandal-paste and Gopi-candana, and paint Tilaka marks, consisting of Ūrdhva-puṇḍra (upright and perpendicular mark on the forehead), Nārāyaṇī Mudrā, figures of Vaiṣṇava Avatāras (the Fish, Tortoise etc.), or of the Vaiṣṇava weapons such as Śaṅkha, Padma etc., on twelve different parts of the body. The method and merit of drawing these marks, especially the distinctive Ūrdhva-puṇḍra, are dealt with in some detail, possibly because in later Vaiṣṇavism these became the peculiar sectarian marks. Gopāla Bhaṭṭa cites a large number of texts to eulogise them and their proper wearing, but he allows freedom with regard to the drawing of different figures, and says that these may be worn, as one wishes, in accordance with the established sectarian usage (Sāmpradāyika Śiṣṭācāra).

c10.s1.44

The next topic is that of the wearing of garlands, made of Tulasi leaves, Tulasi beads, lotus seeds or Āmalaki fruits, after dedicating them to Kṛṣṇa. These should be purified with the Pañcagavya, with the uttering of the Mūla-mantra over them, and with repeating eight times the Gāyatrī, accompanied by certain eulogistic formulas addressed to the garlands themselves. With the garlands on, the devotee performs his prayers and offers libations of water to the deity. He can attain supreme merit even by merely wearing them.

c10.s1.45

The devotee should worship his spiritual preceptor (Guru) first, because the Śāstras ordain that the worship of a preceptor should precede that of the gods, inasmuch as the preceptor is the representative of all the gods, and calamity is bound to befall one who does not observe this duty. The chapter ends with the eulogy of the spiritual preceptor; but it is laid down in this connexion that the Mantra should be taken preferably from a Vaiṣṇava preceptor, although a preceptor once accepted, even if he is a non-Vaiṣṇava, should not be given up.

c10.s1.46

Vilāsa V

c10.s1.47

In this Vilāsa Gopāla Bhaṭṭa proposes to describe mainly the Tāntric method (prāyaśas tāntriko vidhiḥ) of daily morning worship of Gopāla-deva, as given in the Krama-dīpikā, by means of the Mantra of eighteen syllables (mentioned above) pertaining to the deity. We are informed that this method is followed even by Brahmans: for in the Kali-yuga worship is possible, according to the Viṣṇu-yāmala, only through the way of the Āgama, and not by the Śrauta or Vedic method.

c10.s1.48

The chapter begins with the worship of the Attendants (Pārṣadas) of Kṛṣṇa, namely, Garuḍa, Dvāra-lakṣmī, Caṇḍa and Pracaṇḍa, Dhātṛ and Vidhātṛ, Jaya and Vijaya, Bala and Prabala, Vāstu-puruṣa, Gaṅgā and Yamunā, Śaṅkhanidhi and Padmanidhi, Gaṇapati, Durgā, Sarasvatī, and Kṣetrapālas at the door and at different parts of the temple. The worshipper should then enter by putting his right foot forward, and without touching the threshold with his feet. He should then worship Brahmā and the Vāstu-puruṣa, as well as the special Pārṣadas of Kṛṣṇa inside the room. He should throw some rice and flower with appropriate Tāntric Mantra before the image, and take his seat in the Padmāsana or Svastikāsana posture after greeting (Āmantraṇa) and worshipping (Arcanā) the deity with proper formulas. If there is an image he must sit facing it; otherwise, he should turn his face towards the east in the day-time and towards the north in the evening. The seat (Āsana) may be made of various materials, e.g. bamboo, stone, wood, earth, Kuśa-grass, leaves etc., of which the skin of antelopes and tigers, woollen blankets, or mats of Kuśa grass are preferable. Thus seated, he should place the requisites of worship, such as conch-shell, the plates and pots for Arghya, Pādya, Ācamanīya and Madhuparka, the basin for Tulasi leaves, sandal and flowers, the pitcher filled with water, ghee, oil, lamps etc. in their respective places. The utensils may be made of gold, silver, earth and bell-metal, but copper is the most desirable material. In this connexion Gopāla Bhaṭṭa refers to the view of some people who prefer other metals to copper for holding the Madhuparka, on the ground that copper wares are spoiled by the products of cow's milk. Some like to use the conch-shell as the receptacle.

c10.s1.49

The auspicious pitcher (Maṅgala-ghaṭa), properly filled with water and accompanied by a piece of stone, camphor and fruits, is to be placed before the deity. Directions are also given for placing and sandal, flower, rice, Kuśa grass, honey, milk, water etc. in the different utensils for the offering of Arghya, Pādya, Ācamanīya and Madhuparka. Each of these utensils should be protected by muttering the Mūla-mantra eight times and performing the Cakra-mudrā on them. Afer reciting the Maṅgala-śānti Mantra and the Astra-mantra (ustrāya phaṭ) for averting evils and accidents, clapping the palms of one's hands thrice and doing obeisance to the Guru and the different gods and other preliminary ceremonies, the devotee should perform the Bhūta-śuddhi (purification of the five elements) in the Tāntric manner, practise control of breath (Prāṇāyāma) and engage himself in the contemplation of Kṛṣṇa. Next comes the repetition of the Mūla-mantra : but unaccompanied by the Nyāsas, the repetition is fruitless. The process of performing such Nyāsas as Mātṛkā-nyāsa, Keśavādi-nyāsa, Tattva-nyāsa, Pīṭha-nyāsa, Aṅga-nyāsa, Akṣara-nyāsa, Pāda-nyāsa and Ṛṣyādi-nyāsa, as well as the description of the forms, Śaktis and Dhyānas, are then given in some detail. For instance, in the Mātṛkā-nyāsa all letters of the alphabet from a to kṣ are to be placed on the petals of the six lotuses in one's body, as well as on the different limbs. In the Keśavādi-nyāsa, the letters are to be placed with the fifty-one forms of Kṛṣṇa and his Śaktis. Regarding the use of the different parts of the body in the different Nyāsas, Gopāla Bhaṭṭa does not find any objection in placing them on such forbidden parts as the feet or anus, because they all get sanctified by the process of Bhūta-śuddhi. Then the devotee proceeds to perform the five kinds of Mudrā dear to the Lord (namely, Veṇu, Vanamālā, Śrīvatsa, Kaustubha and Bilva) and meditate on Kṛṣṇa with the Mudrā, called Karakacchapikā, by placing the hand with palm upward on his lap. This meditation or mental worship (Antar-yāga or Mānasa-Pūjā) consists of various operations : and the various articles of worship, which are employed in the external worship, may also be utilised in the internal.

c10.s1.50

The objects of outward worship are the image of the deity and the Śalagrāma stone. The image (Mūrti) may be of various kinds according to the material out of which it is constructed, namely, stone, wood, metal, sand, jewels, paint and drawing material, besides being purely mental (Manomayi). The special characteristics, which confer upon an image the names of Vāsudeva, Keśava, Nārāyaṇa etc., are then enumerated : and twelve principal varieties are distinguished, some authorities like the Siddhārtha-saṃhitā giving as many as twenty-four varieties of the image of the deity.

c10.s1.51

The special kinds of dark-coloured stone found in the region round the banks of the Gaṇḍaki are termed Śālagrāma. They are distinguished according to their size, colour and other characteristics, but the merits and demerits are spoken of only in connexion with Sakāma worship meant for the attainment of some mundane object; for, however defective a Śālagrāma stone may be, it possesses in itself sanctity and merit. They are also termed Vāsudeva, Keśava, Nārāyaṇa etc. in accordance with the special signs or characteristics they possess. These signs are enumerated in detail, and the list of names include most of the well known names of Kṛṣṇa, his Associates and Avatāras.¹ The smaller the stone in size, the more auspicious it is. The worship of one Śālagrāma is said to be more efficacious than that of thousands of Śiva-liṅgas. The purchase and sale of Śālagrāma are strictly forbidden. Its worship is compulsory (nitya); and even women and Śūdras² are entitled to worship, the prohibition being applicable only to those who are non-Vaiṣṇavas. Greater merit may be attained by worshipping the Śālagrāma along with the symbolical stone known as Dvārakā-śilā. The latter is characterised by the thirteen names of Kṛṣṇa and his Associates, such as Sudarśana, Lakṣmī-nārāyaṇa, Trivikrama, Janārdana, Vāsudeva, Pradyumna, Baladeva, Puruṣottama, Nava-vyūha, Daśa-mūrti, Aniruddha, Dvādaśātmaka and Ananta, according as the stones possess increasing number of circular lines or Cakras from one to thirteen or more. The merit of their worship may vary with variation in their size and colour.

c10.s1.52

¹ The names are: Vāsudeva, Saṃkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna, Aniruddha, Keśava, Nārāyaṇa, Hari, Parameṣṭhin, Viṣṇu, Kapila, Narasiṃha, Varāha, Matsya, Kūrma, Hayagrīva, Vaikuṇṭha, Śrīdhara, Vāmana, Sudarśana, Dāmodara, Ananta, Yogeśvara, Padmanābha, Hiraṇyagarbha, Hṛṣīkeśa, Lakṣmī-nṛsiṃha, Trivikrama, Kṛṣṇa, Caturmukha, Viṣṇu-pañjara, Śeṣa, Garuḍa, Janārdana and Lakṣmī-nārāyaṇa.

c10.s1.53

² This view is endorsed in the commentary, ascribed to Sanātana, which explains: *bhagavac-cikṣā-prabhāveṇa śūdrādīnām api vipra-sāmyam siddham eva*. But a Śūdra in Bengal never received the right of worshipping the Śālagrāma! Caitanya himself, however, is said to have entrusted a Govardhana-śilā to his Śūdra disciple, the Gosvāmin Raghunātha-dāsa (see above p. 121).

c10.s1.54

Vilāsa VI

c10.s1.55

This chapter deals with the operations relating to the daily morning worship of the image of the deity and its bathing and washing. Though the Sālagrāma worship is declared to be superior to image-worship, yet the latter has its importance, because it attracts the mind easily by its form and beauty. The images are self-revealed (*svayaṃ-vyakta*) or established by some pious devotee (*sthāpita*), of which the former is rare.

c10.s1.56

The process in its different stages is then described in detail. First comes the Saṃskāra of the image. This is done by washing it with water, if it is of a kind other than Lepya or Lekhya (i.e. meant to be besmeared or painted); and the Mūla-mantra is to be repeated during the act eight times. This is called Mūrti-śuddhi or purification of the image; but the purification may also involve (i) self-purification (Ātma-śuddhi), which follows as a direct result, (ii) purification of the place of worship (Sthāna-śuddhi), (iii) purification of the articles employed in worship (Dravya-śuddhi), (iv) purification of the formula of incantation (Mantra-śuddhi) and (v) purification of the mind (Citta-śuddhi) by the relinquishment of every other thought. These six forms of Śuddhi are permissible as auspicious, and they are to be preferred according to the custom of one's own sect. After this, comes the Pīṭha-pūjā or consecration of the seat of the image. In a square drawn on the seat, which is made of copper, should be painted a lotus of eight petals. On the left and right side of the divine seat, the devotee should perform Tāntric Nyāsas, and worship the Pūrva-gurus and their footwears, as well as Nārada and the great Vaiṣṇavas, Durgā, Gaṇeśa, Sarasvatī, the Ādhāra-śaktis and the Maṇḍalas of Sun, Moon and Fire. The worshipper should then place the image on the seat with the citation of the Mūla-mantra and offer of flowers. Then mentally identifying the image with the particular deity he adores (Iṣṭa-devatā), offering flower three times and placing his foot on the ground, he should perform the eight operations, called Āvāhana (invocation), Sthāpana (establishment), Saṃnidhāpana¹ (showing complete surrender by the words ‘I am yours’), Saṃnirodhana² (restraining the deity till the end of the worship), Sakalīkaraṇa³ (displaying all the limbs of the deity), Avaguṇṭhana⁴ (display of great joy), Amṛtikaraṇa⁵ (restraint by all the limbs) and Paramīkaraṇa⁶ (accomplishment of the desired object), with their respective eight Mudrās (called Āvāhanī, Sthāpanī, etc.) According to the custom of his sect, he can also, with his fingers besmeared with sandal, show seventeen other Mudrās, named after the weapons, ornaments and appendages of the deity, namely, Śaṅkha, Cakra, Gadā, Padma, Musala, Śārṅga, Khaḍga, Pāśa, Aṅkuśa, Garuḍa, Śrīvatsa, Kaustubha, Veṇu, Abhaya, Vara, Vanamālā and Bilva, which are elaborately explained in the commentary.

c10.s1.57

After throwing three handfuls of flowers, the Āsana or seat should be formally offered with appropriate words and Mudrās. Then the deity should be offered the Pādya, Arghya, Ācamanīya, Madhuparka and Punar-ācamanīya; but, according to others, the sixteen Upacāras are Āvāhana, Āsana, Pādya, Arghya, Ācamanīya, Snāna with Ācamana, Vastra with Ācamana, Ābharaṇa, Upavīta with Ācamana, Gandha, Puṣpa, Dhūpa, Dīpa, Naivedya, Vandana and Punar-ācamanīya. The different methods of offer of these are then described, with the details of each of these ceremonies, their merits, and the articles necessary for their performance.

c10.s1.58

1 tavāsmīti tvadīyatva-darśanam. 2 kriyā-samāpti-paryantam sthāpanam. 3 tat-sarvāṅga-prakāśanam, explained by commentary, which adds kecic ca-’aṅgair evāṅga-vinyāsaṃ sakalīkaraṇaṃ vidur’ iti vacanāpekṣayā śrīmad-aṅgeṣu mantrāṅga-nyāsaṃ sakalīkaraṇam manyante. 4 ānanda-ghaṭāryanta-prakāśaḥ. 5 sarvair evāṅgair avaruddhatā. 6 abhīṣṭa-sampādanam.

c10.s1.59

The bathing of the image (Snāna) is then dealt with. After soliciting permission and offering a pair of footwear, the worshipper should take the image to the bathing place, and exhibit the Amṛtikaraṇa-Mudrā after placing Āsana, Pādya, Ācamanīya etc. The image is then placed on a copper-plate (for the purpose of collecting the sacred water after washing), or on the leaf of lotus, banyan or plantain, besmeared with unctuous substances (Abhyaṅga-dravya) and bathed with five nectars (Pañcāmṛta), namely, milk, curd, ghee, honey and candied sugar (Śarkarā). During the bath of the deity, incense is to be burnt. After removal of oil and dirt by means of powdered wheat, barley, Kūrca (bundle of Kuśa grass) or other cleansing substances, the image is to be bathed with the citation of proper formulas, first in warm and then in cold water, purified with Tulasi, camphor and various herbs and scented with Aguru (the fragrant Aloe), sandal and perfumes. A bath with the holy water from a conch-shell is said to be very desirable. Those who bathe the deity in the above manner become free from all sins and earn the merit of heavenly bliss. Incense is then to be burnt, and bells, conch-shells and musical instruments are to be sounded with the pronouncing of appropriate Mantras. Singing and dancing should also accompany the performance. The thousand blessed names of the deity and famous hymns should be recited; and the Bhagavad-gītā and the Vaiṣṇava Purāṇas should be read. Then, with the exhibition of the Snāna-Mudrā, the body of the image should be dried by means of a piece of fresh fine cloth. With the Vastrārpaṇa-Mudrā, it should then be dressed in a pair of garments or with special dress for special images or occasions, and invested with the sacred thread. Blue garment is forbidden. After offering ornaments and besmearing the image with sandal and other scented pastes (the forbidden pastes being Padmaka, Rakta-candana and Uśīra), the image should be fanned with Cāmara (chowry) or with a fan made of palm leaf. The merit accruing from all these acts is also described elaborately.

c10.s1.60

Vilāsa VII

c10.s1.61

This Vilāsa, called Pauṣpika or Puṣpa-karman, begins with the topic of offering of flowers in worship, and gives long lists of commendable and forbidden flowers, as well as a description of their merits and demerits with reference to their species, colour, smell and season of growth. Flowers which blossom in the forest, or in the city, or in one's own garden, which are fresh, uninjured (acchinna), purified by sprinkling (prokṣita) and free from insects and impurities, and which have colour, smell and grace, even if they have thorns, are the best for Vaiṣṇava worship. Long lists of such flowers are compiled from the Purāṇas (chiefly the Vāmana, Skanda and Nāradīya), Viṣṇudharmottara, Hārita-smṛti and other works; and the merits of the offering of different kinds of flowers at different seasons are detailed. The dedication of an arbour (Maṇḍapa), umbrella (Chatra), canopy (Vitāna), swing (Doḷā) and bed (Śayyā), all made of flowers, is prescribed; and artificial flowers, made of gold and set with precious stones, may be offered by rich persons. The forbidden flowers are those which grow in places where dead bodies are burnt and on wayside trees (Caitya-druma) which people worship, those which are fallen on the ground or those which are no more than buds (Kalikā). White flowers alone are preferable; but of red flowers (e.g. Jabā),¹ as well as flowers which have thorn (e.g. Keṭaka),² those that possess sharp smell or no smell, or blossom out of season, those which are specifically approved in the scriptures, may be offered. The flowers specially forbidden in Vaiṣṇava worship are Karavī, Dhustūra, black Kuṭaja and Arka, but some add Jhiṇṭī, Girikarṇikā, Kaṇṭakārikā, Śālmalī and Śirīṣa. The undesirable flowers can, however, be used if the commendable flowers are unavailable, but not those which are expressly forbidden; and it is curious that some authorities permit stealing of flowers for purposes of worship, if they cannot be obtained otherwise. The flowers can, however, be substituted by the leaves of Durvā and Kuśa grass, of Apāmārga, Bhṛṅgarāja, Bilva, Baka-vṛkṣa, Tulasī, Āmra and Jambīra; but of these, the five (beginning from Apāmārga and ending with Tulasī) are the best and possess successively higher merit. In any case, the offering of Tulasī is obligatory, being declared the most efficacious and sacred in the scriptures, and all Vaiṣṇava worship being fruitless without it. In the recounting of the merits of Tulasī, which are innumerable, Gopāla Bhaṭṭa compiles a large number of texts; its power of removing sin and destroying enemies, of giving prosperity and happiness here and hereafter, of producing religious merit and devotion to the deity and of conferring emancipation is endless.¹

First 61 of 399 passages. Read on

Linked texts (43)