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Aspects of Mahayana Buddhism and its Relation to Hinayana c7.s3.t16: Résumé: Early Buddhist Conception of Nirvāṇa

Aspects of Mahāyāna Buddhism and its Relation to Hīnayāna c7.s3.t16

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Résumé: Early Buddhist Conception of Nirvāṇa

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The results of my examination of the expositions of Nirvāṇa in the Hinayāna and Mahāyāna works, and of the discussions of same by modern scholars, may be summarised thus:

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The texts of the early Buddhists present a threefold conception of Nirvāṇa, *viz.*, ethical, psychical, and metaphysical.

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(i) ETHICAL. The ethical conception of Nirvāṇa has received the largest amount of attention in the Pāli texts as well as in the writings of modern scholars. The Nikāyas abound in terms and passages expressive of the ethical conception of Nirvāṇa so much so that Dr. Stede wrote as late as 1923 that "Nibbāna is purely and solely an ethical state to be reached in this birth by ethical practices, contemplation, and insight. It is therefore not transcendental".¹ This opinion is not supported by facts. Throughout the Nikāyas, Nibbāna is described as the destruction (khaya) of attachment (rāga), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha), of desire (taṇhā), impressions (saṅkhārā), and firm grasp of wrong ideas (upādāna), of impurities (āsava) and afflictions (kilesa), and of desire for existence (bhava), birth (jāti), old age, death (jarāmaraṇa), and thus of misery (dukkha). In describing the positive aspect of Nibbāna, the Nikāyas state that it is a condition which is very happy (accantasukha), imperishable (accuta), steady (acala, dhīra), tranquil (santa) and free from fear (akutobhaya). It is the state of the highest bliss (amata). The ethical conception of Nirvāṇa appealed so much to the Buddhist authors that they wrote literary pieces of great poetical excellence in order to pay glowing tributes to the attainment of same.

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¹ See *P. T. S. Dict.*, sv. Nibbāna. The part of the Dictionary, containing the article on Nibbāna was published after the death of Dr. Rhys Davids.

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(ii) PSYCHICAL. Many scholars have dealt with the psychical aspect of Nirvāṇa but without laying sufficient emphasis upon its significance. This aspect of Nibbāna is generally brought out in those passages of the Nikāyas, which treat of the Jhānas or the path of contemplation. The object of Jhānas is to bring the mind into such a state that it will be above worldly pleasure and pain. It can be effected by dissociating the mind completely from all worldly matters. This is achieved by means of the trances, the highest of which is the Saññāvedayitanirodha. From the foregoing discussion about the highest trance, it is evident that Nibbāna is psychically Saññāvedayitanirodha provided that the adept complies with the other necessary conditions of Arhathood. In course of our exposition of the various dhātus, it has been shown that an adept in the first jhāna rises mentally to the same level as that of the denizens of the Rūpabrahmaloka, and gradually proceeding higher and higher develops a mental state corresponding to that of the beings of the Nevasaññānāsaññāyatana—the highest plane of existence in the three worlds. He acquires the five transcendental powers (abhiññā), viz., performing supernatural feats (iddhividha) such as visiting the Brahmaloka; acquiring divine ear (dibbasota) and divine vision (dibbacakkhu), knowing others’ thoughts (paracittavijānana), and remembering former existences (pubbenivāsānussati). According to the Buddhist conception, an adept who is capable of rising up as high as the eighth trance (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana) is as powerful as the gods of the highest Arūpabrahmaloka. The stage of Nibbāna being still higher, he has to rise further in trance and attain the Saññāvedayitanirodha, where his mind stops functioning and hence there is no perception or sensation. He is now fit to stay in the Apariyāpannadhātu or Lokuttaradhātu. While in this trance, he has a foretaste of Nibbāna, which is going to be his permanently. He acquires the sixth abhiññā, viz., knowledge of the destruction of his impurities (āsavakhayakāraṇaṇāṇa)¹ and of the consequent attainment of emancipation. His mental faculties then become so very clear² that he understands with a moment’s thought all that is happening around him. He is now possessed of full illumination, i.e., he is enlightened.

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¹ The usual expression is, āsavānaṃ khayā anāsavaṃ cetovimuttiṃ paññāvimuttiṃ diṭṭhe va dhamme sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā upasamapajja viharati. Dīgha, III, p. 281.

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² See Jātaka, I, p. 106 Vaṇṇupatha Jāt.: Obhāsamattam=supernatural illumination while striving to attain jhāna. Cf. Dīgha, II, p. 33; Saṃyutta, II, pp. 7, 105: cakkhum udapādi ñāṇaṃ udapādi paññā u° vijjā u° āloko u°; Paṭis. M., II, p. 150: “Āloko udapādi ti” obhāsatthena.

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(iii) METAPHYSICAL. The metaphysical aspect of Nibbāna presents the greatest difficulties to the students of Buddhism and has been the source of many controversies. There is no end of metaphorical terms and passages in the Nikāyas to describe Nibbāna admitting of a metaphysical interpretation. The notable passage of the *Itivuttaka*¹: ‘Atthi, bhikkhave, abhūtam akatam asaṅkhatam’ shows that the early Buddhists conceived of Nibbāna not as annihilation but as something positive,² which is, however, infinite and indescribable like Ākāsa. It is called a dhātu (realm) beyond the three dhātus,—the Apariyāpanna- or Lokuttara-dhātu. It is a state to be realised (sacchikātabba) within one’s own self (paccattam veditabbo viññūhi). It is homogeneous (ekarasa) and in it there is no individuality. It is like the disappearance of flame in the fathomless state of existence in the infinite.

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¹ *Itiv.*, p. 37.

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² *Kvu.*, p. 124; see also *Mil.*, p. 316.

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The few passages of the *Dīgha* and *Majjhma Nikāyas*, in which Nibbāna has been equated to infinite consciousness (anantaviññāṇa) do not, however, find support in other portions of the same works, which throw light on the conception of Nibbāna. All that can be said under the circumstances is that these passages were later interpolations made at a time when the *Saṃyutta Nikāya* was being compiled. The account of the death of Vakkali with apatitthitaviññāṇa and not paṭisandhiviññāṇa hints that the constituted viññāṇa of an Arhat passes away and mixes up indistinguishably with an ever existing infinite consciousness. This seems to be an anticipation of the Vijñānavāda school of philosophy, but we cannot deny the existence of a trend of thought like this among the early Buddhists. The more accurate conception of Nibbāna would certainly be that it is a state beyond the domain of word and thought and possible of realisation only within one’s own self.

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