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Aspects of Mahayana Buddhism and its Relation to Hinayana c7.s3.t5: Nirvāṇa According to the Early Mahāyāna Works

Aspects of Mahāyāna Buddhism and its Relation to Hīnayāna c7.s3.t5

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Nirvāṇa According to the Early Mahāyāna Works

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The Hinayānic Nirvāṇa thus according to the *Puṇḍarīka*¹ is a haven of peace and rest and is a *vimukti* (emancipation) so far as the *kleśas*² (afflictions) are concerned. It further says that there may be people who may look upon this form of existence as Nirvāṇa and regard the Hinayānists as right in their ways of thinking and practising. In order to counteract such a supposition it states that there is one and only one Nirvāṇa, not two or three, and that one is and can be attained only by a thorough comprehension of the sameness of all things (*sarvadharma-samatāvabodhat*)³. The conception of *Samatā* (sameness) has been developed in the *Sūtrālaṅkāra*, which gives five meanings of same. It says that a being after comprehending *Dharmasamatā* (sameness of things) and realising the non-substantiality of things (*dharmanairātmya*) sees that in the series of existences whether of himself or of others, there is no difference as regards *nairātmya* (essencelessness) and *duḥkha* (misery); that the desire for the removal of misery from himself as well as from others is the same; that the remedy applicable is the same for himself as well as for others; and that the knowledge attained by the bodhisattvas is the same as that attained by him⁴. The *Laṅkāvatāra*⁵ explains *samatā* (sameness) by saying that it is the sameness of the world (*saṃsāra*) and its cessation (*nirvāṇa*), *i.e.*, *saṃsāra* bears to *nirvāṇa* the same relation as waves bear to water. The *Pañcaviṃśati*⁶ explains *samatā* by the illustration of *Ākāśa* (space). It says that Ākāśa has no direction like east or west, no past, present or future, no increase or decrease, no contamination or purification. It has no origin, continuity or decay. It cannot be a subject of thought. It can neither be heard nor seen; it is neither known nor unknown. It has nothing to do with the Kāma, Rūpa or Arūpa dhātus, with attachment or non-attachment, with hatred or non-hatred and so forth. It has no concern with the various cittotpādas (i.e., the development of citta for attainment of bodhi), bhūmis (stages of spiritual progress), phalas (fruits of spiritual sanctification), or any conceptions like happiness (sukha), misery (duḥkha), quietude (śānta), excellence (paṇīta), etc. This is what is called the samatā (sameness) of Ākāśa. It is in this light that the things of the world are to be seen. What the Pañcaviṃśati contends for is that, from the standpoint of reality, the things seen, heard or known by us are, in fact, the outcome of our imagination. What we should do is to regard these things as our fancies, because they are really the same as Tathatā, of which nothing can be predicated, just as nothing can be predicated of Ākāśa.

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¹ *Sad. P.*, pp. 129, 136-7.

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² *Sūtrā.*, p. 119; *M. Vr.*, p. 519: Tatra niravaśeṣasyāvidyārāgādikasya kleśaganasya prahāṇāt sopadhiśeṣam nirvāṇam iṣyate.

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³ *Sad. P.*, p. 133; see p. 143: sarvadharmāḥ samāḥ sarve samāḥ samasamāḥ sadā, Evam jñātvā vijānāti nirvāṇam amṛtam śivam.

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⁴ *Sūtrā.*, p. 94; see p. 48: samacittatā sarvasattesv ātmaparasamatayā.

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⁵ *Laṅkā.*, p. 42: saṃsāra-nirvāṇa-samatā; *M. Vr.*, ch. xxv: na nirvāṇasya saṃsārāt kiñcid asti viśeṣanam. For an exposition of Saṃsāra and Nirvāṇa as one, see Suzuki's *Outlines of Mahāyāna Buddhism*, pp. 352-6; Y. Sogen's *System etc.*, pp. 40-1.

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⁶ *Pañca.* (A.S.B. ms.), leaves 114 ff; *Śata.*, pp. 1560 ff.

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According to the Puṇḍarīka, the real Nirvāṇa is that state in which one sees things without any differentiation or dichotomy, and for the description of which all the expressions that can be used by man, relative as they are, are inadequate. The Laṅkāvatāra¹ describes the jñāna of Bodhisattvas as the lokottaratama-jñāna (super-transcendental knowledge), as distinguished from the lokottarajñāna of the Śrāvakas and Pratyekabuddhas and laukika-jñāna of pṛthagjana (common persons). It consists in the realisation of all dharmas as mere reflections, having no origin and decay. Hence, no question of existence and non-existence can arise in regard to this (nirābhāsadharmapravicayād anirodhānutpada-darśanāt sad asat pakṣavigatam).

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¹ Laṅkā., p. 157.

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The Mahāyānists, however, concede the point that the Arhats can remain at peace in the state called by the Hinayānists Arahathood or Nirvāṇa but, according to them, it is a lower ideal, a selfish end, devoid of love (sneha)¹ and charity. The Puṇḍarīka² states that the arhats after attaining (Hīnayānic) Nirvāṇa do not, in fact, wish to stay there for ever; it is only a temporary rest (viśrāmo'yam na nivṛtiḥ)³. At this stage, they become capable of realising the nature of the Truth and the powers and privileges appertaining to a Buddha, who is indistinguishable from that Truth. Then they set themselves to the performance of the duties still remaining, and ultimately become Buddhas, *i.e.*, attain Nirvāṇa properly so called. They now realise that the three dhātus, from which they have so long struggled to extricate themselves, had no existence whatsoever,⁴ and were merely imaginary superimpositions (parikalpanā).⁵ The three dhātus that are seen in the ten directions are only appearances like a mirage; hence they cannot have origination, destruction or transformation, bondage or freedom, light or darkness. As they are non-existent like things in a dream or a mirage, any statement about them would be inappropriate. Unless one realises the things of this universe in this way, he cannot obtain Nirvāṇa (sarvadharma na prāptāḥ kutas tasya nirvāṇam iti).⁶ One who has developed bodhicitta never thinks himself as existing either in saṃsāra or nirvāṇa. Hence, an Arhat aspiring to comprehend the ultimate truth should not think of himself as having gone beyond Saṃsāra and established himself in Nirvāṇa. Thus the Puṇḍarīka brings out clearly the difference between the Hīnayānic and Mahāyānic Nirvāṇa.

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¹ Sūtrā., pp. 126-7: Niḥsnehānām śrāvaka-pratyekabuddhānām sarvaduḥkhopaśame nirvāṇe pratiṣṭhitam manaḥ.

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² Sad. P., pp. 132-3, 138, 140; cf. Pañca. (A.S.B. ms.), leaf 70b.

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³ Sad. P., pp. 142, 188. Cf. 5 kinds of Nirvāṇa in the Brahmajāla Sutta. Dr. E. J. Thomas in his Life of Buddha, p. 200 refers to it thus, "They hold that Nirvāṇa consists in the enjoyment of this life in five ways, either in the pleasures of sense or one of the four trances".

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⁴ Sad. P., p. 318.

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⁵ Sūtrā., p. 94; sa traidhātukātmasamskārān abhūtapari-kalpanāmātrān paśyati.

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⁶ Cf. Das Gupta's Indian Philosophy, pp. 425, 426, 428 referring to Gauḍapāda's definition of the Absolute. The close agreement between the views of the Sad. P., and Gauḍapāda's Māṇḍukyakārikā will be evident from the following passages: Sad. P., p. 318: Dṛṣṭam hi tathāgatena traidhātukam yathābhūtam na jāyate na mriyate na cyavate nopapadyate na saṃsarati na parinirvāti na bhūtam nābhūtam na sattvam nāsattvam na tathā nānyathā na vitathā nāvitathā. Traidhātukam tathāgatena dṛṣṭam yathā bala-pṛthagjanā na paśyanti...

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