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Early Monastic Buddhism v1.c17.s2: (ii) The Forty Kammatthānas

Early Monastic Buddhism v1.c17.s2

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(ii) The Forty Kammatthānas

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The subjects of meditation are hardly possible of enumeration though traditionally they are said to be forty in number.

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The selection of the subject, as has been shown above, was left to the Kalyāṇamitta who was to choose a subject which, he thought, would be the most suitable for his disciple, no matter whether it was included in the traditional list or not. As, for instance, one of the very common subjects of meditation found in the Nikāya is aniccasaññā to destroy the sense of I-ness (asmimāna),¹ but it is not included in the traditional list.

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¹ See Infra. p. 237, fn. 3.

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The forty subjects are:—
1. Ten Kasiṇas
2. Ten Asubhas
3. Ten Anussatis
4. Four Brahmavihāras
5. Four Āruppas
6. One Saññā and
7. One Vavatthāna.

Ten Kasiṇas

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The word ‘Kasiṇa’ is very probably a Prākṛt form of the Sanskrit word ‘Kṛtsna’ meaning ‘entire’. In the Buddhist meditational practices the term is applied to those subjects of meditation, which occupy the ‘entire’ mind, and as such does not give scope to the rising of any other thought.²

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² Cf. Childers, sv. Kasiṇa. Rhys Davids translates it by the words ‘Predominant Ideas’ (see Yogāvacāra’s Manual, p. viii) and Maung Tin by ‘Devise’ (see Path of Purity, II, p. 138).

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I. The first of the Kasiṇas in the list is Paṭhavīkasiṇa, i.e. when earth is taken as an object of meditation. To induce concentration of mind, a beginner is generally asked to fix his attention on a piece of earth which may or may not be specially prepared for him (*kata* or *akata*), i.e. he may choose a circular-shaped or square-shaped piece of earth when it is called *kata* (prepared) or he may choose, say, a ploughed field when it is called *akata* (unprepared). In the former case particular attention should be given to the fact that the earth must be without any colour as it is likely to divert attention from the earth to its *lakkhaṇas*, e.g. colour. It is, however, recommended that the earth should be of reddish-brown colour like that of dawn, and taken, if possible, from the bed of the Ganges. In a secluded place the adept is to take his seat and try to concentrate his mind on the *pathavī-kasiṇa*, cogitating all the while the evils of *kāma*, the solace in overcoming it and the fact that great saints had obtained emancipation by means of such *dhyānas*, repeating constantly the term *pathavī* or any of its synonyms, *mahī*, *medinī*, *bhūmi*, *vasudhā*, or *vasundharā*. The adept is to try to see with his eyes shut the image of the *pathavī* inwardly with as vividness and distinctness as he was doing with his eyes open. As soon as this is accomplished, the *uggahanimittam* is said to have come to stay (*jātam*).¹ He can now go back to his usual place of residence, and cogitate on the *nimitta* acquired by him.² By doing so, he gradually gets rid of the five *nīvaraṇas* (or hindrances to religious life),³ and the impurities (*kilesas*).⁴ By this first attempt at concentration (*upacārasamādhi*), his mind becomes concentrated, and there appears in the mind the *paṭibhāganimitta*, i.e. the image of the object of meditation (*uggahanimitta*) but now it is much clearer and brighter than the *uggahanimitta* and without the *kasiṇadosa* which remains in *uggahanimitta*. Then commences really the course of meditational practices commencing with *upacāra*, *appanā* and ending with *catukka* or *pañcaka-jhāna*.¹

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¹ *Vism.*, p. 125.

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² He is now advised to use shoes to avoid wasting time in washing his feet and also a walking stick. *Vism.*, p. 125.

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³ Viz., *kāmacchanda* (strong desire), *vyāpāda* (hatred), *thinamiddha* (idleness), *uddhaccakukkucca* (arrogance) and *vicikicchā* (doubts).

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⁴ The *kilesas* are ten in number, viz., *lobha*, *dosa*, *moha*, *māna*, *diṭṭhi*, *vicikicchā*, *thinam*, *uddhaccam*, *ahirīkā*, *anottapam*. The first four and *uddhaccam* are enumerated when the *kilesas* are calculated to be five in number.

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¹ See for details *Infra*, pp. 243 ff.; cf. *Comp. of Phil.*, pp. 54-5.

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II. The second is *Āpo-kasiṇa*, i.e. when the object of meditation is water. It may be any natural or existing expanse of water as that of a tank or a lake or even of the sea, or clear rain water collected in a vessel before it has reached the earth. The vessel must be full and placed in a quiet secluded corner of the monastery. As in the case of *pathavī*, the colour-question must be avoided. i.e. the *lakkhaṇa* of water must not divert the attention of the adept, and the concentration should be induced in the same way as has been explained in the case of *pathavī*, uttering in this case the word ‘āpo’ or its synonyms *ambu*, *udakam*, *vāri*, *salilam*, etc.² Gradually the *uggaha* and *paṭibhāga nimittas* appear and the adept proceeds along the course of meditation.

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² *Vism.*, p. 170.

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III. The third is *Tejokasiṇa*, i.e. when the object of meditation is fire. It may be the flame of a lamp, fire in an oven, or a jungle-fire. The fire may also be specially prepared; in that case, some faggots are to be collected and a pile made of them near a tree and then it should be set on fire. A suitable screen with a hole about four fingers wide is to be placed between the fire and the adept. The adept now is to look at the fire without minding the faggots or the smoke or its colour, even its heat. He should utter the word ‘tejo’ or any of its synonyms and acquire the uggaha and paṭibhāga nimittas as detailed above.

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IV. The fourth is Vāyokasiṇa, i.e. when the object of meditation is wind. It may be seen or felt. In the former case, the adept observes the swaying or shaking of the sugarcane tops or bamboo tops or hair-tips, and in the latter he feels by his body the rush of wind through a hole in a wall or through a window. He realises that it is wind which is moving the tops of sugarcane, etc. or striking his body, and then as described above he is to utter the word ‘vāyu’ or its synonyms and gradually develop the two nimittas and induce the jhānas.

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V. The fifth is Nīlakasiṇa, i.e., when the object of meditation is blue colour. It may be of flowers, a piece of cloth or a blue gem. It may be specially prepared by filling a basket up to the brim with blue flowers in such a way that the pollens or stalk may not be seen. The basket should be covered by a piece of blue cloth in such a way that the mouth of the basket is to appear like the surface of a drum. It should be surrounded by a band of a different colour. Then he is to concentrate his mind on the blue colour avoiding the other lakkhaṇas of the flowers and develop the uggaha and paṭibhāga nimittas.

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VI-VIII. The sixth, seventh and eighth are Pītakasiṇa, Lohitakasiṇa and Odātakasiṇa, i.e. when the objects of meditation are yellow, red and white respectively. The kasiṇas are to be prepared as detailed above like the Nīlakasiṇa and the process is the same for developing the nimittas and jhānas.

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IX. The ninth is Āloka-kasiṇa, i.e. when the object of meditation is a spot of light. The sun’s or the moon’s rays, if received through a chink in the walls, or windows or through an opening in a thick foliage, form a circular spot of light on the earth. The adept fixes his attention on it and utters ‘obhāso obhāso’, ‘āloko āloko’. The spot of light may also be obtained artificially by putting a lamp within a jar having a hole in its side. As said before, the adept by concentrating his mind on the spot of light develops the nimittas and jhānas.¹

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¹ Vism., pp. 174-5

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X. The tenth is Paricchinnākāsa-kasiṇa, i.e. when the object of meditation is limited space. The openings in a wall or a window may well be selected as paricchinna-ākāsa, or an opening may be made, say, four fingers wide in a well-covered pavilion or in a sheet of leather. The adept is to fix his attention on the opening and utter ‘ākāso ākāso’ and develop gradually the nimittas and jhānas.²

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² Ibid., pp. 175-7.

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In conclusion, Buddhaghosa speaks of the various miraculous powers acquired by an adept successfully practising the above ten kasiṇas.³

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³ Ibid., p. 175.

Ten Asubhas

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The ten asubha (unpleasant) objects of meditation refer to the ten states through which an uncared for corpse passes before it is completely destroyed. They are,—

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(i) uddhumātakam or swollen corpse;

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(ii) vinīlakam, i.e., when the colour of the corpse has become blue;

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(iii) vipubbakam or the corpse full of pus;

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(iv) vicchiddakam or the corpse with limbs torn asunder (e.g. dead bodies of thieves);

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(v) vikkhāyitam, i.e., when the corpse has been mangled by dogs and jackles;

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(vi) vikkhittam or the corpse with dismembered limbs;

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(vii) hatavikkhittam or the corpse with its limbs partly destroyed and partly scattered;

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(viii) *lohitakam* or the corpse covered here and there with blood (e.g. of a soldier in a battle field);
(ix) *puḷuvakam* or the corpse full of worms;
(x) *aṭṭhikam* or the skeleton.

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After enumerating these ten unpleasant objects of meditation, Buddhaghosa deals with the following:
(i) safety of the place where a corpse is found;
(ii) how he should behave or what he should ponder over while going to or coming from the place of meditation;
(iii) sex of the corpse and its suitability;
(iv) advantages of leaving instructions with the teacher and fellow-brethren about the place selected by him for meditation;
(v) the path and direction to be chosen;
(vi) the nature of the noticeable objects around the place where the corpse is found;
(vii) the six characteristics of the corpse to be observed by him, viz., colour, sex, position, direction and size of the corpse, as also joints, apertures, depth of eye sockets etc., thickness, and a general view of the corpse.

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The meditator, as in the case of *paṭhavī*, tries to convert the corpse into a concept (*paṭibhāga*), and then as usual gets rid of the five *nīvaraṇas*,¹ and induce the ecstacies by gradually doing away with *vitakka* and *vicāra*, *pīti* and *sukha*.²

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¹ See above, p. 219, fn 3

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² Vism., p. 189.

Six Anussatis

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The two previous lists of Kammaṭṭhānas speak of actual objects upon which the adept concentrates his mind, gradually converting them into concepts. The present list speaks of pure cogitation of the merits (guṇas)¹ of (i) Buddha, (ii) Dhamma and (iii) Saṅgha, as also of (iv) sīlas (observance of precepts), (v) cāga (making gifts) and (vi) devatā (ways and means by which one is reborn in the realm of the gods). Such cogitation leads to

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1 In the Visuddhimagga, the merits (guṇas) of each of these have been quoted from the Piṭaka. These are as follows:

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(i) Buddhānussati—Iti pi so Bhagavā arahaṃ sammāsambuddho vijjācaraṇasampanno sugato lokavidū anuttaro purisadamma-sārathi satthā devamanussānaṃ Buddho Bhagavā ti.

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(ii) Dhammānussati—svākkhāto Bhagavatā dhammo sandiṭṭhiko akāliko ehipassiko opanayiko paccattaṃ veditabbo viññūhi ti.

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(iii) Saṅghānussati—supaṭipanno Bhagavato sāvakasaṅgho ujup. b. s., ñāyap. b. s., sāmicip. b. s., yad-idam cattāri purisa-yugāni aṭṭhapurisapuggalā esa bhagavato sāvakasaṅgho āhuneyyo pāhuneyyo dakkhiṇeyyo, añjalikaraṇīyo anuttaraṃ puñña-khettaṃ lokassā ti.

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(iv) Sīlānussati—aho vata me sīlāni akhaṇḍāni acchiddāni asabalāni akammāsāni bhujissāni viññūpasatthāni aparāmaṭṭhāni samādhisamvattanikāni ti.

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(v) Cāgānussati—Lābhā vata me, suladdham vata me, yo'haṃ maccheramalapariyuṭṭhitāya pajāya vigatamalamaccherena cetasā viharāmi, muttacāgo payatapāṇi vossaggarato yācayogo dānasamvibhāgarato ti.

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(vi) Devatānussati—Santi devā Cātumahārājikā, santi devā Tāvatiṃsā, Yāmā, Tusitā, Nimmānaratino, Paranimittavasavattino, santi devā Brahmakāyikā, santi devā tat'uttariṃ; yathārūpāya saddhāya samannāgatā tā devatā ito cutā tattha uppannā mayhaṃ pi tathārūpā saddhā saṃvijjati; yathārūpena silena........ yathārūpena sutena. .......yathārūpena cāgena.........yathārūpena paññāya samannāgatā tā devatā ito cutā tattha uppannā mayhaṃ pi tathārūpā paññā saṃvijjati ti.

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quietude of the mind (*cittam pasīdati*) and destroys the five *nīvaraṇas*,¹ produces great joy and ultimately induces *vipassanā* (insight) leading to arhathood.

Other Anussatis

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Besides the six *anussatis* mentioned above, there are three other *anussatis* called (i) *maraṇa-sati*, (ii) *ānāpāna-sati*, and (iii) *upasamānussati*. Unlike the first twenty *kammaṭṭhānas*, these are matters of cogitation and not external objects to be converted into concepts.

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The practice of *maraṇa-sati* implies that the adept after having seen a corpse is to ponder over the fact that he is also subject to that inevitable death and by doing so he rouses his mindfulness of death, mental agitation and also knowledge relating to it. This leads to the destruction of the *nīvaraṇas*¹ and induction of the *jhānas*. Buddhaghosa gives detailed direction about the instances of death to be selected by the meditator.²

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¹ See above, p. 219, fn. 3.

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² *Vism.*, pp. 230 ff.

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The practice of *kāyagatā-sati* means that the adept is to ponder over the fact that this body from head to foot is full of many impure things and that there are in it hair, nails, spleen, intestines, etc. The most popular way of taking up this *kammaṭṭhāna* is to repeat the list of things contained in the body hundreds or thousands of times either loudly or mentally and thereby induce concentration of mind. Buddhaghosa then gives many other directions about the best way of practising *kāyagatā-sati*, and treats in detail the various contents of the body,—a treatment which may well bear comparison to a modern anatomical study.³

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³ *Ibid.*, pp. 243 ff.; 250 ff.

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The second is *Ānāpānasati*. Inducing meditation by the process of controlling breath is very widely known and is, in fact, adopted by all religions which advocates concentration of mind. It corresponds partly to the *Prāṇāyāma* as described in the Brāhmaṇic Tantras and Purāṇas and the *Yogaśāstras*, in which *pūraka* (inhaling), *kumbhaka* (stoppage of breath) and *recaka* (exhaling) form the three essential factors.¹ In the Buddhist meditational practices it is given an important place and forms one of the chief subject-matters of discourse under the heading *Satipaṭṭhāna*. In the *Yogāvacara’s Manual*, it is given the first place among the various meditational exercises.

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¹ Cf. *Majjhima*, I, p. 243-4; *Pātañjala*, I, 34, 49.

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Those, who choose breath-control as their *Kammaṭṭhāna*, are required to go to a forest or to a secluded spot, sever his thoughts from the outside world and direct his attention to his own inhalation and exhalation and thus gradually develop *upacāra* and *appanā*.² He should sit cross-legged, keeping his body erect. Then he is to exhale (*assāso*) and inhale (*passāso*), observing the time it takes for full inhalation and full exhalation, watching also when exhalation or inhalation starts (*ādi*), reaches the middle (*majjha*) and the end (*pariyosāna*). In exhalation the breath starts from naval (*nābhi*), passes through heart (*hadaya*) and reaches the nosetip (*nāsikaggam*),³ and in inhalation the process is just in the reverse direction. The mind follows the course of the breath consciously. It is only by long practice that an adept is able to keep himself aware of all the three stages of in-breathing and out-breathing.¹ Such observation and control of the breath lead to stoppage of all bodily movements (*passambhayaṃ kāyasaṅkhāraṃ*).²

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² *Vism.*, p. 269.

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³ Not *nābhikaggam*. See *Vism.*, p. 280. In the *Sandhyā-upāsanā* of the Brāhmaṇas, the three points are nābhi, hṛdaya and lalāṭa, the first being the seat of Brahmā, the second of Keśava and the third of Śambhu. Cf. *Pātañjalabhāṣya*, I, 34: कौष्यस्य वायोर्नसिकापुटाभ्यां प्रयत्नविशेषात् वमन प्रच्छर्दनम्, विधारणं प्राणायामः, ताभ्यां वा मनसः स्थितिं सम्पादयेत् ।

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¹ Cf. Paṭisambhidā-magga, I, p. 177.

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² Vism. pp. 274-7.

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The artificial aids³ taken by an adept for ānāpānasati are mainly (i) *gaṇanā*, i.e. counting, which is not to exceed ten; (ii) *anubandhanā*, i.e. following the course in its three stages, viz., beginning, middle and end; and (iii) *phusanā* i.e. watching the points of contact, nābhi, hadaya and nāsikaggam.⁴ By these aids the adept soon acquires the *paṭibhāga-nimitta* (concept) and develops *appanā* (or *ṭhapanā*, fixation of the mind) and in some cases the body of the adept becomes so light as to rise up in the air.⁵ At this stage the external inhalation and exhalation cease but there are internal inhalation and exhalation, to which then the adept's mind is directed. The subject of meditation may be either assāsa or passāsa, or nimitta (after-image) of either.⁶

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³ Cf. Pātañjalabhāṣya, I, 50.

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⁴ Vism, p. 278.

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⁵ Ibid., pp. 282-3. Cf. Pātañjalabhāṣya, I, 34.

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⁶ Vism., p. 285.

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By meditating upon the nimitta without vaṇṇa and lakkhaṇa (characteristics) one destroys the five nīvaraṇas and develops the jhāna.⁷

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⁷ Ibid., p. 286.

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The last of this anussatis is Upasamānussati or cogitation of Nibbāna. The adept as usual is to retire to a lonely place and think of the fact that the absence of attachment (virāga) is the best of all dhammas constituted and unconstituted. He thereby develops concentration of mind and the jhāna.

Four Brahmavihāras

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The four Brahmavihāras are mettā, karuṇā, muditā and upekkhā.¹ These are so called because they make the minds of the adepts pure like those of Brahma-kāyikā gods and after death they are reborn in the highest plane.²

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¹ Cf. Pātañjala, III, 23, and Bhāṣya, I, 33: तत्र सर्वप्राणिषु सुखसभोगापन्नेषु मैत्रीं भावयेत, दुःखितेषु करुणां, पुण्यात्मकेषु मुदितां, अपुण्यात्मकेषु उपेक्षाम् । एवमस्य भावयतः शुक्लो धर्म उपजायते । ततश्च चित्तं प्रसीदति, प्रसन्नमेकाग्रं स्थितिपदं लभते ॥

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² Vism, p. 320.

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i. The adept desirous of practising mettā-bhāvanā should take his seat in a secluded place after he has finished his meal and realise the evils of dosa-citta (mind full of hatred) and merits of khanti (forbearance), for, by mettā-bhāvanā dosa is removed and khanti developed.

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The first step in mettā-bhāvanā is to select the person upon whom the adept is to cast a friendly eye but at the same time keeping his mind free from rāga and such other feelings. After pointing out the various difficulties in selecting the person, it is suggested that mettā-feeling should be first exercised in connection with one’s own self, i.e. wish for one’s own good and then in connection with his spiritual preceptor and so forth wishing him all happiness. In this way he is first to develop appanā and then gradually extend his range, including ultimately his enemies, after having completely destroyed his paṭigha, if any. He is to extend his range from the inmates of his own āvāsa to those of another and so on, to nine or ten āvāsas, and then to the inhabitants of a village, town and so forth up to a cakka-vāḷa.³ The next step for him is to break down the line of demarcation (sīmāsambheda) between any two persons, i.e. his feeling of love towards himself, his friends, his enemies or neutrals should be absolutely without any distinction. As for instance, if a man wants to kill his enemy, he must not say that the life of his enemy be spared and his be taken instead; it will not then be sīmā-asambheda. To him there should be no distinction between himself and his enemy and it is this state of mind that mettā-bhāvanā is expected to create. As soon as sīmā-asambheda is developed, he has the necessary nimitta, upacāra and appanā and soon acquires the four jhāna.s¹

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³ Ibid.

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¹ Vism. p 307.

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In the Nikāyas, the usual statement is that the adept exercises the mettā-feelings towards all beings in all the directions one after another. This is possible only after the adept has gone through the procedure described above.

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ii. In karuṇā-bhāvanā also the adept is to choose a suitable object of compassion, e.g., an indigent person begging for alms or a criminal when being taken to the place of punishment and so forth. In this way he is to extend his range for compassion, including ultimately his enemies, after removing paṭigha, if any. Like mettā-bhāvanā, he is to practise sīmā-asambheda and gradually develop nimitta, upacāra, appanā and the jhāna.s.

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iii. In muditā-bhāvanā the adept is to have a feeling of joy at another's happiness (muditā). The best to start with is a close friend (atippiyasahāyako) of the adept and then other persons may be selected and ultimately his enemey. The remaining process is the same as that of mettā-bhāvanā.

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iv. Upekkhā-bhāvanā is generally taken up by an adept who has practised the previous three bhāvanās and acquired the jhāna.s. In the jhāna.s too, there are the feelings of pīti and virāga, which, being akin to anunaya (fondness) and paṭigha (hatred), have to be eschewed in upekkhā-bhāvanā.

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In practising upekkhā-bhāvanā it is suggested that the person to be selected for the exercise of the feeling of equanimity should be a neutral one and then a friend and then an enemy. Like mettā-bhāvanā, in upekkhā too, the sīmā-asambheda is to be practised, developing ultimately the jhāna.

Four Āruppas or Samāpattis

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The Kammaṭṭhānas that we have so far dealt with were meant to induce the jhānas up to the fourth, which keep the mind of the adept within the limits of Rūpaloka. The subjects of meditation that we propose to treat now induce the higher jhānas from the fifth to the eighth, usually called Samāpattis, and carry the mind of the adept to the region of Arūpaloka.

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1. The first subject of meditation of the Āruppas is ākāsānañcāyatana (=ananta-ākāsāyatana). It starts with ākāsa-kasiṇa as dealt with above¹ with the difference that ākāsa in this case is unlimited extending over the whole cakkavāḷa. So long the conception of ākāsa is associated with cakkavāḷa, though it is unlimited, the adept does not go beyond the Rūpaloka. The adept is to think constantly of ananta-ākāsa, but without any kasiṇa, i.e. without any reference to the ākāsa as extending over a cakkavāḷa or so forth. In short, his mind is to be severed from all conceptions of objects (sabbaso rūpasaññānaṃ samatikkamā),² and hence without the possibility of nānatta-saññā (sense of distinction). By constantly meditating over this nimitta, he destroys the nīvaraṇas,³ develops mindfulness (sati) and concentrates his mind through upacāra,⁴ and attains the fifth jhāna.

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¹ See above, p. 222.

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² Rūpasaññā = Paṭigha-saññā, because by the paṭighāta (contract) of object and eye arises the rūpasaññā. Sec Vism., p. 329.

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³ See above, p. 219, fn. 3.

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⁴ Vism., p. 328.

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2. The second subject of meditation of the Āruppas is viññāṇānañcāyatana (= ananta-viññāṇāyatana). This is closely connected with the previous subject of meditation and at the same time a step in advance. In the ākāsānañcāyatana meditation, the adept's mind is not without some notion of sphere (desa). This is considered as faulty and the adept seeks to withdraw his mind from the sense of sphere and confines his attention to viññāṇa (consciousness)¹ of ananta-ākāsa and cogitates of ananta-viññāṇa only and develops as usual the jhāna, reaching the sixth.

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¹ Pavatta-viññāṇa=the consciousness that has arisen in the adept's mind by concentrating his mind on ananta-ākāsa.

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3. The third subject of meditation of the Āruppas is ākiñcaññāyatana (= n'atthi kiñci iti āyatana or nā'ssa kiñcanan ti akiñcanam. Akiñcanassa bhāvo ākiñcaññam). In this case the adept withdraws his mind from the consciousness (viññāṇa) of ananta-ākāsa, and cogitates on voidness or absence of viññāṇa and everything else (n'atthi n'atthi ti vā suññaṃ suññan ti vā vivittaṃ vivittan ti vā). By such cogitation, his mind realises the non-existence of viññāṇa and thus gradually develops the seventh jhāna, the jhāna of nothingness.

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4. The fourth subject of meditation of the Āruppas is said to be n'evasaññā-nāsaññāyatana, but in fact, the mental state of n'evasaññā-nāsaññā is derived by cogitation of ākiñcaññāyatana, i.e. abhāva of viññāṇa as explained above. In the seventh jhāna, the meditator gradually gets rid of saññā (perception) of the four khandhas (rūpa, vedanā, saṅkhārā and viññāṇa), but retains a saññā (perception) of extreme subtlety—the residuum of saṅkhārā. He cannot perceive ordinary things but he is not absolutely without perception. Hence the mental state of the meditator in the eighth jhāna is without perception of ordinary things (*n'evasaññā*) but not without the subtlest perception (*na + asaññā*).

The last two Kammaṭṭhānas

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The last two Kammaṭṭhānas are (i) *āhāre paṭikūlasaññā-bhāvanā* and (ii) *catudhātu-vavatthānassa bhāvanā*.

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1. *Āhāre paṭikūla-saññā* or disgust for food. The adept is to ponder over the evils connected with food. The evils may be of many kinds, e.g., botheration of going out for alms and seeking for it; performing the preliminaries when taking food; the unclean stomach which receives the food, undigestibility of food and so forth. By meditating over these evils, he gets rid of desire for food and gradually of all desires (*taṇhā*). He feels no attachment for his body, and thus attains the summum bonum in this life.¹

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¹ *Vism.*, pp. 341-7.

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2. *Catudhātu-vavatthāna*, or determination of the four elements of the body. The adept, taking up this Kammaṭṭhāna, examines the contents of his body under the four heads: *paṭhavī*, *āpo*, *tejo* and *vāyu*. He takes into consideration one by one his skin, flesh, sinews, marrow, kidneys, bones etc.,² and examines their functions and then looks upon them as nothing but one of the four elements, and as such they are mere material objects (*acetana*), indeterminable (*avyākata*), substanceless (*suñña*), non-sentient (*nissatto*) and so forth. Such examination and cogitation make the adept realise the voidness (*suññatam*) of his self and so of the world. He can no longer perceive the existence of different beings. As soon as he develops this mental state, he attains the highest knowledge.³

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² For details, see *Vism.*, pp. 358-67.

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³ *Ibid.*, pp. 347-70.

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