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An Outline of the Religious Literature of India c7.s2: ii. The Twice-born and their Literature.

An Outline of the Religious Literature of India c7.s2

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English

ii. The Twice-born and their Literature.

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§ 36. The three twice-born castes—Brāhmans, Kshatriyas, Vaiśyas—formed now a large educated community, sharply divided among themselves, yet far more deeply cut off from the vast Śūdra community which served them, and from the unclean Outcastes with whom they would have nothing to do. The whole of the literature described in our first chapter was their exclusive possession, and much more was destined to come into existence during the period. But, though they kept themselves rigidly separate from Śūdras in all religious matters, it seems probable that Śūdra worship soon began to exercise an influence on them.

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We deal, first of all, with what is, strictly speaking, the literature of the twice-born, namely works written in exposition of the earlier literature. In all these books the doctrine of karma and rebirth is accepted as true, and here and there the Upanishad theory of release also finds reflection.

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§ 37. We mention first what is clearly the earliest form of Indian philosophy, although its earliest surviving document cannot be dated earlier than the fourth century after Christ, and although in its inception it was in no sense philosophical It is clear that the Karma Mīmāṃsā in some form came into existence quite early during this period. It is, as will be explained later, a method of Vedic exegesis, dealing primarily with the sacred texts which give injunctions for the sacrifices. Its interest for us at this point is twofold, first because it is to this day the special system of the orthodox twice-born man, and secondly because it retained for many centuries certain features characteristic of the time of its birth, and indeed retains some of them to this day. The Mīmāṃsā reflects the time when the average educated man was frankly polytheistic, and thus atheistic from the point of view of theism or pantheism, when he accepted rebirth and karma but felt no need of release, and when, like the average unreflecting man, he took a realistic view of the world. For the understanding of the developments of this period it is of great importance to realize that this was the state of mind of nearly all educated men¹ in the earlier, and probably of the vast majority in the later, part of the period also.

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¹ Cf. Oldenberg, *LU.* 31.

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§ 38. We take next the literature of the Vedic schools. The basis of all the training is still the process of laying up in the memory the hymns of the Veda of one’s school and the long chapters of the Brāhmaṇa. But a large amount of ancillary material has now to be mastered by the student as well as the fundamental texts. The sciences of Vedic exposition, phonetics, grammar, metre, etymology, &c., the beginnings of which are found in the Brāhmaṇas, have each grown in width and complexity as well as in accuracy. The sacrifices, both minor and major, have grown steadily more intricate and more numerous, and the *dharma*, i.e. the law of conduct, has become a large body of detailed injunctions. Hence, to enable the student to carry in his mind the vast and varied masses of information which he required to know, a new method of teaching was created, the *sūtra*-method. The essential feature of the method is the committing to memory of a long series of very abbreviated phrases, which serve as a sort of classified index of the particular subject dealt with. The method was of service in proportion to the care with which the subject was arranged, and to the skill with which the mnemonic phrases were composed. A series of *sūtras* is more or less incomprehensible by itself; it has always a commentary attached to it, either oral or written, which fills up the gaps and expounds the thought.

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There are four types of *sūtras* which are of large significance for the religious life, namely the *Śrauta*, the *Gṛihya*, and the *Dharma* manuals, and the magic-books. The *Śrauta-sūtras* get their epithet *Śrauta* from the fact that they are directly founded on the hymns and the *Brāhmaṇas*, which are *śruti*, i.e. revelation in the highest sense. The *Gṛihya* manuals are called *gṛihya*, i.e. domestic, because they describe the minor sacrifices and the ritual acts obligatory on the family. The *Dharma* manuals lay down the rules of the *dharma*, i.e. the Hindu law of conduct. Of the *Śrauta-sūtras* a dozen survive, of the *Gṛihyas* also a dozen, or thirteen, if the *Kauśika* be included, and of the *Dharma* manuals six; while there are four noteworthy books on magic.

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It is as yet impossible to give any definite chronology of the *sūtras*; but all the surviving works of the *Śrauta*, *Gṛihya*, and *Dharma* classes (called as a group the *Kalpa-sūtras*) probably belong to the fifth, fourth, or third centuries.¹ Nor is it yet possible to set them out in the order of their origin.²

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¹ See the discussions by Keith, *AĀ*. 21-5; *TS*. I. xlv-xlvi.

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² But see Keith, *TS*. I. xlv.

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§ 39. The *Śrauta-sūtras* are hand-books prepared for the use of priests with reference to the greater Vedic sacrifices, i.e.

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those for which three or more sacrificial fires, and priests belonging to each of the three orders, were necessary. Thus each Śrauta-sūtras depends on one of the three Vedas, and contains instructions only for the order of priests corresponding to that Veda. Hence in order fully to understand the ceremonial of any single sacrifice, it is necessary for the student to read together the sections on that sacrifice in three Śrauta-sūtras. For this certain other manuals, called Paribhāṣās, which show how the three strands of the sacrifice fit together, are used.

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§ 40. The Gṛihya-sūtras deal with three groups of subjects. The first group contains general and detailed rules for the simpler sacrifices, which were performed on the domestic fire by the householder himself, if he were a Brāhman, or by a priest appointed by him for the purpose. These offerings are of three types: (a) melted butter, oil, or milk poured on the fire; (b) cooked cakes; and (c) animal sacrifices. The second group of subjects are the eighteen sacraments, solemn ceremonies connected with the great moments of life, such as birth, the first solid food given to the child, his tonsure, his initiation as a religious student, his return home after his education, and marriage. The third is a mixed group, including house-building rites, the funeral ceremony, the śrāddhas, or offerings to the spirits of deceased ancestors, and minor observances. As in all these ceremonies there is but one series of ritual acts and liturgic utterances, the Gṛihya-sūtras of the three Vedas differ very little from each other except in the Vedic stanzas they quote.

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§ 41. The Dharma-sūtras deal not with sacrifice but with conduct. The word dharma means that which is obligatory, and is thus similar to the Latin *religio*. It is used in several

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The Karma Mīmāṃsā, we may remind ourselves, existed in order that every injunction covered by the Śrauta and Gṛihya sūtras should be faithfully performed. Learned Mīmāṃsakas were usually present at the greater sacrifices to guide everything.

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senses, which vary chiefly in their scope: first, Hinduism as a whole is the *dharma*, just as to Buddhists Buddhism is the *dhamma*; second, the whole religious law, as expressed in the Śrauta, Gṛihya, and Dharma codes; third, the laws of conduct: this is the ordinary meaning, as in the Dharma-sūtras and the later Dharmaśāstras; and fourth, the law of a caste, as in the *Gītā* frequently. The Dharma-sūtras contain regulations for the four *āśramas* or forms of Hindu life, viz. the student, the householder, the hermit, and the ascetic, and the following special subjects: the king, civil law, criminal law, marriage, inheritance, funeral rites, penances, and excommunication. Originally the Dharma-sūtras were each meant to be used only by members of its own school, but later a number of them became recognized as valid for all twice-born men.

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The basal principle upon which this law of conduct rests is the supreme obligation of the caste system. By that a man's profession and religious duties are determined, as well as his place in Hindu society. The Brāhman is the priest, teacher, and judge; the Kshatriya is the ruler and warrior; the Vaiśya turns to agriculture, industry, or trade; the Śūdra is the servant of these three twice-born castes. The Outcastes are untouchable and are shut out in their filth and their poverty. All the provisions of the laws of property and crime are conditioned by caste: the higher a man's caste, the greater his rights; the higher the caste of the criminal, the less his punishment; the higher the caste of the wronged party, the greater the penalty. It is well to note that in the time of these sūtras each man chooses his own āśrama, i. e. whether he is to remain a student, or become a householder, a hermit, or a sannyāsī: these modes of life have not yet become a series through which each man is expected to pass. Amongst the fresh regulations, we note two of supreme importance for the family—the rule that a girl should be married before puberty,¹ and the rule that no widow who has borne children should remarry.¹

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¹ Gautama DS. XVIII. 21-23; Vāsiṣṭha DS. XVII. 69-70; Baudhāyana DS. IV. 1, 11-12.

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¹ Gautama DS. XVIII. 4-17; Vāsiṣṭha DS. XVII. 55-68, 74.

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§ 42. The religion reflected in the sūtras ² is polytheistic and ritualistic. There is no trace of divine incarnation in them, and no approach to theism. The philosophy of the Ātman is mentioned as a subject of meditation for the sannyāsī; and in one sūtra it is heartily commended to the student on the ground that there is no higher object than the attainment of the Ātman.³ Necessarily, the whole of the Vedic religion is represented—the soma-cult, the fire-cult, animal sacrifice, and the numerous magic rites. Temples and images also appear side by side with these ancient methods of worship, but we are told nothing about the temple-cult, the reason seemingly being that it stands outside the Vedic faith. The old pantheon remains, but several new divinities appear, chiefly abstractions—Dharma, religious law; Kubera, wealth; Kāma, Cupid. Brahmā, whom we meet in the Āraṇyakas, has also an honoured place. The worship of snakes, mountains, rivers, and pools is also found; and cow-pens are reckoned among holy places. The doctrine of transmigration and karma is recognized as true by every one, but the old eschatology is still in use; so that there is no unity of treatment. Readers will note how close the resemblance is to the religion of the original Epics.

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² See the careful sketch by Hopkins, RI. 242-63.

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³ Āpastamba DS. I. 8, 22-3.

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§ 43. The appearance during this period of the sūtra-texts on Magic shows that the practice of the old methods of magic was still a very living part of the religion; but we must notice that these ceremonies did not form part of the obligatory ceremonial law (kalpa), but are extra and voluntary. The chief text, the Kauśika-sūtra which belongs to the Atharvaveda, is first of all a Gṛihya-sūtra, but also gives a great deal of detailed information about magical ceremonies, and makes much that is far from clear in the Atharvan quite comprehensible. The *Rigvidhāna* describes the magical effects produced by the recitation of hymns or single verses of the *Rigveda*; while the *Sāmavidhāna Brāhmaṇa* shows how the chants of the *Sāmaveda* may be used for superstitious practices.¹ The *Adbhuta Brāhmaṇa* also belongs to the *Sāmaveda*, and deals with portents and the means to avert their evil influence. We may also mention here the *Gopatha Brāhmaṇa* of the *Atharvaveda*, which is a late text of very varied character, depending on the *Vaitāna-sūtra*.

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¹ For the date of these texts, see Keith, *TS.* I. clxvii.

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§ 44. Subsidiary sūtras also existed on the measurement of altars and were called *Śulva-sūtras*, from the word for a measuring line, on Phonetics, *Śikshā*, Grammar, *Vyākaraṇa*, Etymology, *Nirukta*, Prosody, *Chhandas*, and Astronomy, *Jyotisha*. There were also special forms of the text of the *Rigveda* and various ancillary works on minor matters.

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A large part of this literature is of no interest for our subject, as, from the modern standpoint, it is purely secular. But there is one of these secular books which we must mention, because of the immense influence it has exerted over language in India, and its consequent importance for Indian history. We refer to the *Ashṭādhyāyī* or Eight Chapters of Pāṇini on *Vyākaraṇa*, Grammar. Pāṇini lived at Taxila in the far north-west, seemingly about the middle of the fourth century B.C.² He may have been alive when Alexander and his army were entertained in the city with royal magnificence. In him culminated the movement to make the speech of the Vedic schools a thoroughly musical, trustworthy, intelligible, and polished instrument; and his book has been the norm of the *Saṃskṛita*, i.e. the cultured, speech ever since. Down to his time this language had gradually changed; but from the moment when in the schools of India his book became the standard, Sanskrit became an unchangeable language. By his day great differences had already arisen between the polished tongue and the current forms of speech: Sanskrit was becoming incomprehensible to the uneducated man. Herein lay its disadvantage and still lies. But, on the other hand, it remains permanently intelligible to all cultured men throughout India, while each vernacular is restricted to its own domain, and also changes so rapidly that usually in three or four hundred years its best literature is as foreign to the vulgar as Sanskrit itself.

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² Keith, *TS.* I. clxviii.

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The whole of this sūtra-literature was recognized as revelation of the second grade and was called smṛiti, remembrance, in contrast with literature of the highest grade, which, as we have already seen, was called śruti.

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§ 45. A famous work on politics, Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra, which has recently come to light, though not a religious work, must be mentioned here on account of the large amount of detailed information it affords incidentally as to the condition of religion and morals in Magadha, towards the end of the period. According to tradition, Kauṭilya is another name for Chāṇakya, Chandragupta’s Brāhman minister; but critical inquiry tends to lead to the conclusion that the work is the text-book of a school of politics, and that, while probably part of it is the work of Chāṇakya, it has been redacted and interpolated.¹ Yet its evidence is of great value, if we give its date rather wide limits, say from 300 to 100 B. C. It is a work which no one dealing with Hindu ethics can afford to neglect. The information it gives about government, law, crime and its punishment, and the social and economic state of the country is of very great importance. Its evidence with regard to the religion of Magadha is most interesting. The popular belief was a wide and varied polytheism; for not only are the great gods and many of the minor divinities of Hinduism mentioned, but the worship of mountains, rivers, trees and fire, of birds, snakes, and cows and other animals, is regarded as of great value as a prophylactic against pestilence, cattle-disease, demons, fire, floods, drought, famine, and other calamities. Numerous ceremonies, incantations, and magical arts are recommended for such purposes also. Readers will note how well this fits in with the evidence of the epics and the sūtras. Another aspect of the book is its eschatology. It does not seem to mention transmigration, karma, or release at all. In all these features the work is very similar to the edicts of Aśoka. The following is the basis of the moral and religious teaching of the treatise:

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¹ Keith, JRAS. 1916, p. 130. But see also K. V. Rangaswami Aiyangar, Some Considerations on Ancient Indian Polity, Madras, 1916.

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The observance of one's own duty leads one to heaven (*svarga*) and infinite bliss (*ānantya*). When it is violated, the world will come to an end owing to confusion of castes and duties. Hence the king shall never allow people to swerve from their duties. . . . For the world, when maintained in accordance with the injunctions of the triple Veda, will surely progress, but never perish.¹

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¹ l. iii.

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This is precisely the position of the Karma Mīmāṃsā. The work recommends the Sāṅkhya, Yoga, and Lokāyata philosophies. The first and the last of the three are atheistic, and it is practically certain that at this date the Yoga was so also.

Cites (25)