The Religions of India c19.96

Language: English

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The literature of early Buddhism consists of a number of historical works embodying the life and teaching of the master, some of more didactic and epigrammatic intent, and, in the writings of the Northern Buddhists, some that have given up the verbose simplicity of the first tracts in favor of tasteless and extravagant recitals more stagey than impressive. The final collection of the sacred books (earlier is the Suttanta division into Nikāyas) is called Tripitaka, ‘the three baskets,’ one containing the tracts on discipline; one, the talks of Buddha; and one, partly metaphysical; called respectively Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma. The Southern² Pāli redaction — for the writings of the Northern¹ Buddhists are in Sanskrit — was commented upon in the fifth century of this era by Buddha-gosha (‘Buddha’s glory’), and appears to be older than the Sanskrit version of Nepāl. Some of the writings go back as far as the Second Council, and their content, so far as it concerns Buddha’s own words, in many cases is doubtless a tradition that one should accept as authoritative. The works on discipline, instead of being as dull as one might reasonably expect of books that deal with the petty details of a monastery, are of exceeding interest (although whole chapters conform to the reasonable expectation), for they contain fragments of the work and words of Buddha which give a clearer idea of his personality and teaching than do his more extended and perhaps less original discourses.

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They throw a strong light also on the early church, its recalcitrant as well as its obedient members, the quarrels and schisms that appear to have arisen even before Buddha’s death. Thus in the *Mahāvagga* (ch. x) there is found an account of the schism caused by the expulsion of some unworthy members. The brethren are not only schismatic, some taking the side of those expelled, but they are even insolent to Buddha; and when he entreats them for the sake of the effect on the outer world to heal their differences,² they tell him to his face that they will take the responsibility, and that he need not concern himself with the matter. It is on this occasion that Buddha says, “Truly, these fools are infatuate,” leaves them, and goes into solitude, rejoicing to be free from souls so quarrelsome and contentious. Again these tracts give a picture of how they should live that are truly Buddha’s disciples. Buddha finds three disciples living in perfect harmony, and asks them how they live together so peaceably and lovingly. In quaint and yet dignified language they reply, and tell him that they serve each other. He that rises first prepares the meal, he that returns last at night puts the room in order, etc. (*ib.* 4). Occasionally in the account of unruly brothers it is evident that tradition must be anticipating, or that many joined the Buddhist fraternity as an excuse from restraint.

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The *Cullavagga* opens with the story of two notorious renegades, ‘makers of strife, quarrelsome, makers of dispute, given to idle talk, and raisers of legal questions in the congregation.’ Such were the infamous followers of Panduka and Lohitaka. Of a different sort, Epicurean or rather frivolous, were the adherents of Assaji and Punabbasu, who, according to another chapter of the *Cullavagga* (i. 13), ‘cut flowers, planted cuttings of flowers, used ointment and scents, danced, wore garlands, and revelled wickedly.’ A list of the amusements in which indulged these flighty monks includes ‘games played with six and ten pieces, tossing up, hopping over diagrams, dice, jackstraws,¹ ball, sketching, racing, marbles, wrestling,’ etc.; to which a like list (*Tevijja*, ii) adds chess or checkers (‘playing with a board of sixty-four squares or one hundred squares’), ghost stories, and unseemly wrangling in regard to belief (“I am orthodox, you are heterodox”), earning a living by prognostication, by taking omens ‘from a mirror’ or otherwise, by quack medicines, and by ‘pretending to understand the language of beasts.’ It is gratifying to learn that the scented offenders described in the first-mentioned work were banished from the order. According to the regular procedure, they were first warned, then reminded, then charged; then the matter was laid before the congregation, and they were obliged to leave the order.

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Even the detail of Subhadda’s insolence is not wanting in these records (*Cull.* xi. 1. and elsewhere). No sooner was Buddha dead than the traitor Subhadda cries out : “ We are well rid of him ; he gave us too many rules. Now we may do as we like.” On which the assembly proceeded to declare in force all the rules that Buddha had given, although he had left it to them to discard them when they would. The Confessional (Pātimokkha), out of which have been evolved in narrative form the Vinaya texts that contain it, concerns graded offences, matters of expiation, rules regarding decency, directions concerning robes, rugs, bowls, and other rather uninteresting topics, all discussed in the form of a confession.¹ The church-reader goes over the rules in the presence of the congregation, and asks at the end of each section whether any one is guilty of having broken this rule. If at the third repetition no one responds, he says, ‘ They are declared innocent by their silence.’ This was the first public confessional, although, as we have shown above, the idea of a partial remission of sin by means of confession to the priest is found in Brahmanic literature.² The confession extends to very small matters, but one sees from other texts that the early congregation laid a great deal of weight on details, such as dress, as the sign of a sober life. Thus in *Mahāvagga*, v. 2 ff., certain Buddhists dress in a worldly way.

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At one time one is informed of the color of their heretical slippers, at another of the make of their wicked gowns. All this is monastic, even in the discipline which ‘sets back’ a badly behaved monk, gives him probation, forces him to be subordinate. In *Cullavagga*, i. 9, there is an account of stupid Seyyasaka, who was dull and indiscreet, and was always getting ‘set back’ by the brethren. Finally they grow weary of probating him and carry out the *nissaya* against him, obliging him to remain under the superintendence of others. For, according to Buddha's rule, a wise novice was kept under surveillance, or rather under the authority of others, for five years; a stupid uninformed monk, forever. Buddha's relations with society are plainly set forth. One reads how his devoted friend, King Seniya Bimbisāra, four years younger than Buddha, and his protector (for he was King of Māgadha), gives him a park, perhaps the first donation of this sort, the origin of all the monastic foundations: "The King of Māgadha, Bimbisāra, thought 'here is this bamboo forest Veluvana, my pleasure-garden, which is neither too near to the town nor too far from it. . . What if I were to give it to the fraternity?' . . . And he took a golden vessel (of water) and dedicated the garden to Buddha, saying, 'I give up the park to the fraternity with Buddha at its head.' And the Blessed One accepted the park" (*Mahāvagga*, i.

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22).¹ Another such park Buddha accepts from the courtezan, Ambapālī, whose conversation with Buddha and dinner-party to him forms a favorite story with the monks (*Mahāv*. v. 30; *Cull*. ii). The protection offered by Bimbisāra made the order a fine retreat for rogues. In *Mahāv*. i. 41 ff. one reads that King Seniya Bimbisāra made a decree: "No one is to do any harm to those ordained among the Çākya-son's monks.² Well taught is their doctrine. Let them lead a holy life for the sake of complete extinction of suffering." But robbers and runaway slaves immediately took advantage of this decree, and by joining the order put the police at defiance. Even debtors escaped, became monks, and mocked their creditors. Buddha, therefore, made it a rule that no robber, runaway slave, or other person liable to arrest should be admitted into the order. He ordained further that no son might join the order without his parents' consent (ib. 54). Still another motive of false disciples had to be combated. The parents of Upāli thought to themselves: "What shall we teach Upāli that he may earn his living? If we teach him writing his fingers will be sore; if we teach him arithmetic his mind will be sore; if we teach him money-changing his eyes will be sore. There are those Buddhist monks; they live an easy life; they have enough to eat and shelter from the rain;

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we will make him a monk." Buddha, hearing of this, ordained that no one should be admitted into the order under twenty (with some exceptions).