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Outlines of Jainism c10: Chapter II.—Metaphysics

Outlines of Jainism c10

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English

Contents

Chapter II.—Metaphysics

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Jaina philosophy is characterized as much by logic, comprehensiveness, and cogency as Jaina theology is by its simplicity, common-sense, and straightforwardness. The topics of Jaina Metaphysics may be arranged as follows:—

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i. The soul and the non-soul; ii. the kinds and qualities of soul; iii. substance and attributes; iv. the six substances; v. the five magnitudes; vi. the *karmas*, or actions; vii. their kinds; viii. the seven principles; ix. the nine *padārthas* (categories); x. the effect of *karmas* on the body and soul; xi. the five kinds of bodies; xii. the four forms of existence; xiii. the six tints of the soul; xiv. the stages in the evolution of the soul.

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In conclusion we give, xv, the Three Jewels of Jainism.

I. Jīvājīva : The Soul and the Non-Soul

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There are two great categories: soul, *jīva*; and non-soul, *ajīva*. The whole universe falls under this division, which is logically perfect; it is division by dichotomy. The division is not the same as that into "the I and non-I": the *jīva* class includes much of the non-I class. It is when we look upon the universe from the point of view of life or consciousness that we divide all things which it contains into living beings (*jīva*) and non-living beings (*ajīva*). The division into the I and non-I, or into self and non-self, helps us, however, to understand the division into *jīva* and *ajīva*, since "self" or "I" is the most immediate and ever-available kind of *jīva* that we can study, and one which from the earliest times we have been advised to study (1).

II. Kinds and Qualities of Soul

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Souls are of two kinds according to the bodies which they inhabit.

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A. *Sthāvara* souls, literally "immobile" souls, but probably rather souls with hardly more than a kind of tactile perception. These are of five kinds—

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(1) Souls of mineral bodies, e.g. stones in a quarry, diamond or coal in a mine, etc. It includes only what has the capacity of growing.

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(2) Souls of water. Modern science has demonstrated the wonderful living organisms in a drop of water. It is interesting to remark how Jaina philosophy—in its way—divined this marvel of nature, and how more than two thousand years ago the Jainas preached and practised compassion towards these tiny and invisible fellow-beings of man by prohibiting an extravagant or careless use of water.

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(3) Souls of living beings in fire : the salamander of olden days is an illustration.

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(4) Souls of air : the air that we breathe is held to be full of little living creatures.

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(5) Souls in the vegetable kingdom : the recent researches of science, and, curiously enough, very much indebted to the exertions of an Indian scientist (Professor J. C. Bose, of Calcutta University), have demolished the hard and fast distinction between organic and inorganic biology. This is the result of experiments showing that plants live and grow *and* respond to human and other forces applied to them. Jainism has long credited plants, and, indeed, even minerals (as above), with the possession of a soul having consciousness of a very low order.

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B. The other class of souls is *trasa*, or mobile. The distinction is that the *sthāvara* soul cannot move at its own will, while the *trasa* to a greater or lesser extent can. The *trasa* souls have sense-organs, and are classified accordingly into four classes: namely, into (1) those which have two senses, of touch and taste; (2) those which have three senses, i.e. of smell also; (3) those which have four senses, i.e. of sight also; (4) those which have five senses, i.e. hearing also (2).

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Nine qualities of the soul are given (5); but the chief of them is consciousness (or *chetanā*). *Jīva* is that which lives, whether a worm, an ant, a rose, a nightingale, a horse, or a man. It is capable of seeing and knowing all, and it desires happiness and avoids pain. Of the mundane form of body and soul the soul is the higher, and the only responsible, partner. Or rather the body, except in the drag of its dead inertia, is merely the sleeping partner (3). The powers of the soul are limitless, as we have seen in theology. The whole universe is its scope. Its knowledge and perception cover all; its happiness is not measured by time, because time cannot run beyond it; and its power is divine, because it is joined to omniscience. This great principle of Jainism, this little "I", which is the ever-agitated centre of our brief lives, is eternal. Matter may capture it, keep it back from its light and freedom and bliss; but matter cannot kill it. Jainism exposes the hollowness of death. The string of life is continuous; the migrations are only knots in it. Or life is a journey on a long line of railway; we stop at different stations, the soul looks out of the carriage window, long at one station, a mere glance at another, attentively and interestedly at one group of men and things, carelessly and casually at another. The six to ten decades of time are not the span of all our lives. An unremembered æon preceded the moment when the mother brought us into the world; and an endless, unknown road lies before the soul when the janitor of death turns the key and we enter, not the limited hall of Yama or Mors, but those free fields, for the journey across which these six to ten decades are our time of preparation! The soul is immaterial, of course; it has neither touch, nor taste, nor smell, nor colour. It is the essence of wisdom and power, and eternally happy. Who will gauge its possibilities? It is a king in rags. It has faint memories of the richness and glory and power that were its own. But the rags are tangible, and make it feel incredulous of ever having been a king. "How can I be a king and in rags? No one would allow that." Long accustomed to nothing but pain and limitations, the human soul is sceptical about its power and bliss. The hurry of modern civilization, the proud materialism of science, and the brilliant applications of inventions and discoveries to the creature comforts of man are feeding this scepticism. These things are not against religion: they make material life easier, brighter. But they go beyond their province in trying to scoff or laugh out of existence the non-material aspect of human life. It is the beautiful and well-dressed maid becoming impertinent to the good mistress who brought her up and allowed her to dress well and develop her charms.

III. Substance and Attributes

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Let us see what we mean by *dravya*, which is the generic name for soul, matter, time, and space, and the principles of motion and stationariness. A *dravya* exists in its own nature, and has its own attributes and modifications (7). It has what is technically called *sattā*. This *sattā* connotes three accidents: *utpāda*, coming into existence, or origination; *vyaya*, going out of existence, or perishing; and *dhrauvya*, continuous sameness of existence, or continuance. The *utpāda* and *vyaya* relate to modifications (*paryāya*) of substances; *dhrauvya* relates to its inner nature, to its essential attributes. Soul-*dravya* exists, or has *sattā*, which means that the soul exists with its soul-ness, and with its qualities and modifications. These qualities may refer to its essential nature, e.g. that the soul has consciousness; or to its transitory condition, to its *paryāya*, e.g. that the soul of Mahāvīra is the most white of all (see *leśyās* below, pp. 45–7). The soul’s *sattā*, in the *utpāda* and *vyaya* aspects, relates to its embodied condition in *saṃsāra*. It comes into existence and goes out of it, as A or B. But as soul itself, it has continuous existence throughout time : it is the same soul now as when it animated the body called A or B. Before our birth, in our life and after death, until our highest evolution, the soul remains the same individual. This is the *dhrauvya* aspect of the soul’s *sattā*.

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The important matter is this : birth or death (*utpāda* and *vyaya*) are of a condition of a *dravya*. The *dravya* is uncreated and indestructible; its essential qualities remain the same (*dhrauvya*); it is only its *paryāya*, or condition, that can, and does, change. And it is logically necessary from the first position taken up by Jainism: namely, that substances and attributes are distinguishable, but not distinct. The attributes are not all fixed; they come and go (*utpāda*, *vyaya*); but the substance remains (*dhrauvya*).

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As to the threefold consideration under substance, attribute, and condition or modification, in the light of *sattā* substance is *dhrauvya*, the modification or condition is *utpāda* and *vyaya*, and the attributes are partly one and partly the other. Substance, even in its *dhrauvya* aspect, is only a sum-total of eternally existing attributes, e.g., the soul is consciousness, matter is non-consciousness, and space is the capacity of giving place to substances. Thus the attributes of consciousness, etc., are *dhrauvya*. But the conditions of substances are also the sum-total of attributes which attach to the substances and then leave them. The soul in the condition called A had certain attributes as A, e.g., name, size, colour, nationality, character, religious tendency, scholarship, etc.; all these attributes attached to it at some time, at its birth or after, and then ceased at its death. These attributes come under the *utpāda* and *vyaya* of the condition or modification of the soul called A. The other *dravyas*, besides soul, may in the same way be considered with reference to *sattā* and with reference to substance, modification, and attributes (8–9). Let us deal with the six separately.

IV. The Six Substances

The Soul

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This is the only knowing substance; its essential characteristic is consciousness. The other substances, matter, time, space, and principles of motion and stationariness, are devoid of consciousness (10). I know, the table does not know; the pen with which I am writing is not conscious of my using it or of its existence. The month and date of my writing are not conscious, nor are the principles or forces which make it possible for me to stand up or sit down. Matter, time, *dharma* and *adharma*, and space are devoid of consciousness. But of these, matter, soul, and time are innumerable; whereas *dharma* and *adharma* and space are only one each.

Matter (11)

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That which has not consciousness, but can be touched, tasted, seen, and smelled is matter. Things enjoyable by the senses, the five senses themselves, the body, the mind, the *karmas*, and all other material objects are called *pudgala*, or matter. This will be dealt with more fully under *astikāyas*, or magnitudes. Of course material objects are innumerable.

Dharma (12)

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This is devoid of taste, touch, smell, sound, and colour, and is conterminous with the universe (*loka*). It is the principle of motion; the accompanying circumstance or cause which makes motion possible, like water to moving fish. The water is a passive condition or circumstance of the movement of a fish, i.e. it is indifferent or passive (*udāsīna*) and not active or solicitous (*preraka*) cause. The water cannot compel a fish at rest to move; but, if the fish wants to move, water is then the necessary help to its motion. *Dharma* cannot make soul or matter move; but, if they are to move, they cannot do so without the presence of *dharma*. Hence it is that at the end of the *loka* or universe, there being no *dharma*, the soul which, urged by its natural tendency to move upward, has risen to the *siddha-śilā*, or the place of liberated souls, attains perfect rest. It cannot move, because there is not the necessary motion-element, *dharma*.

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*Dharma* is one only, like *adharma* and space, and unlike soul, matter, and time, which are innumerable.

Adharma (13)

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This is the opposite of *dharma*, equally coeval and conterminous with the universe. It is also an indifferent or passive cause of stationariness; like the earth to falling bodies. Its nature and substance are the same as those of *dharma*. It is immaterial, and one.

Space (14)

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This is what gives to all souls and to all other substances their places in the universe.

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Like *dharma* and *adharma*, space is one only.

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Space includes our universe and beyond. The universe is *loka*, and the beyond is *aloka*. The five substances, *dharma*, *adharma*, soul, matter, and time, are found in the universe only.

Time (15–18)

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That which is the cause or circumstance of the modification of soul and other *dravyas* is time: it is immaterial, and is the necessary element in our dealings with other *dravyas*. It is without taste, colour, smell, or touch. It has only its own attributes, and the peculiar attribute of helping the modification of the other substances. Like the souls and matter, it is innumerable.

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The two divisions of time into *avasarpiṇī* and *utsarpiṇī* eras, and the six ages of each, have been noticed above in the Introduction. In practice time is divided as follows:—

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*samaya* is the unit of time; its measure is the time taken by a unit of matter in going from one unit of space to the next unit of space with slow motion.

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*nimiṣa*, time taken in raising the eyelid. It consists of innumerable *samayas*.

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*kāṣṭhā* = 15 *nimiṣas*.

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*kalā* = 20 *kāṣṭhās*.

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*nāḷī* or *ghaṭī* = 20 *kalās* and a little over.

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*muhūrta* = 2 *ghaṭīs*.

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*ahorātra* (day and night) = 30 *muhūrtas*.

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*māsa* (month) = 30 days.

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*ṛtu* = 2 months.

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*ayana* = 6 months or 3 *ṛtus*.

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*saṃvatsara* (year) = 2 *ayanas* (16).

V. The Five Astikāyas (Magnitudes) (19–32)

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Jaina philosophy really starts with a perfect division of the universe into living and non-living existences, jīva and ajīva. But the contents of this division are arranged and considered in two more ways. Ajīva being sub-classified into matter, space, time, dharma, and adharma, we get the six dravyas, substances, of Jainism. These six are then considered as having or not having constituent parts (pradeśas). From this point of view time is the only continuous substance which does not consist of many pradeśas, like our bodies. A pradeśa is an infinitesimal unit of space; kāya (or body) is the technical name given to a thing which has pradeśas. Time has only one pradeśa; therefore time has not kāya, is not an astikāya, or a magnitude. The other five are astikāyas (19–21). These astikāyas are uncreated; they have the quality of sattā or the characteristic of modifying their condition and continuing their substratum (utpāda, vyaya, and dhrauvya) (22). They are also the constituent elements of the Universe(24). They are called astikāyas, because they have sattā and are therefore asti; and because they have many pradeśas and are therefore kāya (20). Dharma and adharma have innumerable pradeśas (units of space). Matter has pradeśas which may be numerable, innumerable, or infinite. Thus, a molecule (or skandha) may be numbered as to its atoms. But some masses cannot be numbered as to their atoms, e.g. a mountain. Some other skandhas may contain an infinite number of atoms, as an ocean, the world. Space has infinite pradeśas. But the soul has innumerable pradeśas (22–3).

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The soul, space, dharma, and adharma are immaterial (amūrtika), unbreakable, and cannot be said to have parts. The soul has great elasticity : it can expand, if need be, and fill the whole universe. But its *pradeśas* cannot be divided.

The Soul (5, 30-1)

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The soul, we remember, is either liberated (*siddha*) or mundane. The mundane soul is in combination with karmic matter. We are not perfect: we can improve. These two facts are the cogent indications of the capacity of the human soul to evolve. Evidently it is in an impure state, and the cause of impurity is not far to seek : the gross body speaks for the demand of dead matter on the living man. What, then, is the pure soul ? Every soul is potentially pure. Matter is only a cruel parasite, an unclean veil. The soul is ever all-perfect, all-powerful. By ignorance it identifies itself with matter, and hence all its troubles and degradation. In its pure condition it has four enjoyments : those of perfect perception, perfect knowledge, infinite power, and infinite bliss.

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In the impure state nine properties of the soul may be mentioned—

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1. It lived in the past, is living now, and shall live for ever.

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2. It has perception and knowledge.

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3. It is immaterial, i.e. has no touch, taste, smell, or colour.

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4. It is the only responsible agent of all its actions.

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5. It completely fills the body which it occupies, e.g. that of an ant or an elephant (30-1).

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6. It enjoys the fruits of all its *karmas*.

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7. It wanders in *saṃsāra*.
8. It can become in its perfect condition *siddha*.
9. It goes upward.

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The cause of its impurity being karmic matter, the nine qualities may, more or less, be derived as consequences of this eternal combination of life and lifelessness. The soul is a *dravya*; therefore, like every other *dravya*, it is eternal. Its peculiar attributes are perception and knowledge. It is, of course, different from *karma*, or matter; therefore it must be immaterial. It has identified itself with matter; therefore it assumes a body, which it must fit. It is responsible for its *karmas*, because it has the power to get rid of them all. It must reap the harvest of all seeds that it has sown; and therefore must remain in the field of *saṃsāra*, or cycle of existences. And still all these evils are self-assumed; and in its pure condition the soul is *siddha* (5).

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To get at even a working conception of our innermost nature is as difficult to-day as when the philosopher taught his pupils, "Know thyself." After all, there is a good deal of truth in the saying "After me the deluge". Nothing can interest me, unless it directly or indirectly relates to me, to the "I". This "I" is for me the centre of all life and of all theories and ideals of life.

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In the Introduction (p. xvii) we have seen the first great question of philosophy and theology to be: "What am I? What is this soul?" The duality of matter and life is evident, except perhaps to the extreme monism of materialism or idealism, which, in Hume’s phrase, may be said to be “subversive of all speculation”. Thus the soul is this life only when identified with a particular individuality. Jainism here steps in to elaborate the characteristics of this spiritual man within the man of flesh.

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In every man, every living being, a demand for happiness and aversion to pain or trouble is the first universal feature of life. Jainism seizes this as the most important characteristic of soul. It seeks happiness. It seeks this, because it has it not. To science soul or life is only a mysterious something that lurks behind the marvel of matter. To Jainism and to all religions this is an incomplete account of reality: the soul is as real as matter itself. The body is rough and gross: it is fit only for the struggle with its own kin—matter. The soul is subtle and refined, not meant for struggle with matter: it is what feels pain and pleasure. The senses and the mind bear messages to it. It is the entity between which and the phenomena of life the body is the visible link. It is the something which still feels discontented when the body and even the mind have found all that they want. It is a more inner principle of life than even mind. It is that which has the instinct of peace and bliss. Despite all our pangs and sorrows we still hope for the best. This unkillable hope is the faintest index to the eternal bliss which is an ever-present characteristic of soul. The hurry and competition of life soon tire us. This is due neither to laziness nor to love of weakness. It is only the germ of compassion which is the soul of man. It is the pursuit of peace, of undisturbable tranquillity, that is a great feature of the soul in its pure condition. The peace and bliss are the twin goals aimed at by the soul. They cannot be everlasting, unless based on deep, detailed, and well-digested knowledge. Perception and conviction are conditions of perfect knowledge. Thus perception, knowledge, peace, and bliss are the great characteristics of soul. In combination they imply an enormous power in the fully evolved soul. Thus we come once more to the Infinite Quaternary (ananta-chatushṭaya) of Jainism. (Theology, p. 1 supra.)

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The doctrine of soul is not in the Jaina view a mere matter of faith, it is a matter of observation and common-sense. If people shut their eyes to the noon-day sun and go on asking: "Where is the sun, we can't see it. There is no sun," there is no remedy; they cannot see the light. By shutting one's eyes to facts, or explaining them away, if they oppose our pet theory or scepticism, we cannot kill facts, although truth is shut out, in part or wholly. I try to make this clear, as Jainism cannot be properly understood and followed, unless we believe in a soul and clearly realize our belief and analyse in details the meaning thereof.

Matter (Pudgala) (11, 25–9)

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Wedded to the soul is the great lifeless substance of matter. Whereas the soul's qualities are life, consciousness, knowledge, perception, peace, bliss, and power, matter has for its characteristics lifelessness (6), touch, taste, smell, and colour (25).

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The distinction of matter into atoms (aṇu) and molecules (skandha) has been known to Jainism for centuries.

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"In an atom there is only one *pradeśa* (or unit of space)": so says the *Dravyasaṃgraha-gāthā* 26 (27). But, as atoms unite, they become a molecule. The finest kind of matter is that of the *karmas*, forming the karmic body, which always attends the soul and is the last to be discarded before the entry into the region of liberated souls. A group of karmic atoms is technically called a *karma-vargaṇā* (28).

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Science recognizes three conditions of matter: solid, liquid, and gaseous. Jainism recognizes six conditions—

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1. Gross-gross, or very gross matter (= solid), e.g. a mountain, a pillar of iron, etc. This class of matter, when divided, cannot be united without the use of a third something;

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2. Gross (= liquid), e.g. water, oil, etc. On division this can be united without the intervention of a third thing;

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3. Gross-fine, e.g. shade, sunshine. It is interesting to compare this with the corpuscular theory of light in Western physics, before it was replaced by the modern wave-theory of Huygens. It is matter which looks gross or tangible, but cannot be grasped;

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4. Fine-gross, e.g. fragrance, sound, sweetness, etc.; the distinction between this and gross-fine being that gross-fine is more gross than fine, because it can be seen as light, shade, etc.; whereas fine-gross cannot be seen, although its origin may be gross. The gases of science would be fine-gross. Fine-gross includes all things that may be perceived by the senses of touch, taste, smell, or sound;

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5. Fine: matter capable of becoming karmic matter. It cannot be perceived by the senses (28);

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6. Fine-fine: still finer molecules, in the karmic body, which is the finest. Fine-fine matter has for its atoms the combination of two or more ultimate atoms (paramāṇu). (According to some it is the ultimate atom itself.)

Space (Ākāśa) (14)

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Things in the universe occupy each some place. That which gives things their places is space.

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Space has two divisions: (1) the universe (loka), (2) the non-universe or the beyond (aloka).

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In the universe all the six dravyas (magnitudes and substances), soul, matter, space, time, principles of motion and stationariness, find their places. In the aloka there is only endless space.

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In the universe also, which is in the form of a human body standing akimbo, there is only a small portion of space occupied by living beings. Of these, again, only a small part form the miserable and active mankind, which inhabits the madhya-loka. (See under Cosmology, Appendix II.)

Principles of Motion (Dharma) and Stationariness (Adharma) (12–13, 32)

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This and the next substance are the greatest peculiarity of Jainism. There is no other system, religious or speculative, which has anything corresponding to the Jaina dharma and adharma. These must be considered in some little detail.

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The term *dharma* is used in many senses. In Indian philosophy it meant "property", "quality", "characteristic", and in theology "duty", specially religious duty, and thus religion itself. In modern times it popularly means "religion", and sometimes the "highest duty" of a man or a community. Originally it meant "rule", "law" also, as in *dharma-śāstras*, "law-books"; but now this use is obsolete, except in that phrase. *Dharma* is also used as equivalent to piety; a *dharmātman* is a man who is pious, good, benevolent. Further, *dharma* means meritorious deeds; as so-and-so has done a work of *dharma*, e.g. by feeding or clothing the poor, by building a temple, etc., etc.

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This variety of uses has had a confusing effect upon all. Jaina philosophy has suffered especially. The technical and peculiar sense in which *dharma* and *adharma* are employed in Jaina metaphysics is sometimes entirely missed, even by leading Orientalists: e.g., in Dr. Guérinot's excellent *Essai de Bibliographie Jaina*, at pp. xvii and xviii, we read: "D'autre part *l'ajīva*, qui se subdivise en cinq espèces :

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1° Le *dharma*, la loi religieuse, le mérite, la droite conduite.

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2° *L'adharma*, ou principe contraire au précédent, soit le démérite, le péché."

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The universe is divided into *jīva* and *ajīva*. "*Ajīva* is subdivided into five species: (1) *dharma*, religious law, merit, right conduct; (2) *adharma*, or the principle contrary to the preceding, say, demerit, sin."

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Here the meaning of the terms *dharma* and *adharma* in Jaina philosophy is quite misconceived. The popular and modern connotation of the terms is certainly most misleading. These facts are significant. Why should the Jainas adopt such misleading terms for their peculiar doctrines? If the term *dharma* had been fixed as signifying even law or merit when the Jaina doctrine arose, it is impossible to see why Jainism should adopt it as meaning the principle of motion. A better suggestion is that *dharma*, in its technical Jaina sense, must have been used before the meaning of it as law and merit was fixed. This is another indication of both the great antiquity and genuineness of the Jaina system, and must be added to Professor Jacobi's classical lines of evidence set forth in the Introduction.

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To come to the usage of the two terms, an ancient text says: "*dharma* is devoid of taste, colour, smell, sound, and touch, is conterminous with *loka* (the universe), is unbreakable or indivisible, is all-pervading by its nature, and has innumerable *pradeśas* (or units of space)" (12).

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It is well to remember that *astikāya*, = magnitude, does not mean material something. There are five *astikāyas*—matter, time, space, *dharma*, and *adharma*. And of these only one, *pudgala*, is matter, i.e. capable of touch, taste, smell, and colour (25). All the other *astikāyas* are devoid of these four distinguishing attributes of matter. The five *astikāyas*, or along with *jīva* (soul) the six *dravyas*, all exist eternally. They cannot be destroyed; they were never created. They are independent of one another, except of course that in a sort of neighbourly contact or conflict they keep the universe going. They are not ignorant of the principle of division of labour. Matter goes to struggle with the unwary or infatuated soul; time times the conflict; space makes possible the arena; *dharma* helps the combatants to struggle on; and *adharma* assists them when they are inclined to rest. This is the whole struggle for existence. This is the genesis, the evolution, and the destiny of the universe. It cannot be changed, it cannot be stopped. The soul seeks to act, to move itself or matter, and *dharma*, which is omnipresent in the universe, is ever-ready to assist it to move itself or its adversary matter. If the soul seeks to cease moving, or matter loses its grip and drops down inactive in the form of a matured and fallen-off *karma*, there is *adharma* to help the soul and matter to cease work and to be in a condition of stationariness. Accordingly *dharma-dravya* is eternal, indestructible, the essential circumstance for all moving bodies, and itself the product of the activity of none (12).

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It is noticeable, too, that the most important magnitudes and substances are two: soul and matter. The other four are a sort of setting to these two. Space and time are the necessary conditions to make the drama visible to knowledge; *dharma* and *adharma* are the necessary conditions of its continuance in its endless vicissitudes, merit and demerit, high and low, happiness and misery, as far as disturbance and tranquillity. Of course, *dharma* and *adharma* are in their nature and *modus operandi* the same (13). It is the same sword in the hand of a devoted soldier or a fanatic rebel.

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Finally, *dharma* and *adharma* are everywhere in the universe. Beyond the universe they are not: there is only empty space, extending on all sides in its undisturbed, eternal void and eternal unchangeableness.

VI. Karma

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The two most important substances are soul and matter, as the two real categories are soul and non-soul, matter being only one of the five classes which make up non-soul. Soul is living, matter is not. The union of the two cannot conduce to freedom, perfection, or peace. The mind desires to pursue a train of thought or action; the body obeys up to a certain point, then refuses to work further. The mind is impotent to goad it on; and is pained at being so dependently mated to a partner of such grossness and limitations. This is a matter of everyday experience.

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Matter is without consciousness: soul is conscious. Matter has no choice but to be moulded by the soul. The connexion of soul and matter is material; and it is effected by the soul's activity. The bondage is called *karma*, since it is the *karma* or deed of the soul. It is material, forming a subtle bond of extremely refined karmic matter which keeps the soul from flying up to its natural abode of full knowledge and everlasting peace.

VII. Kinds of Karma (33-5)

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In this last-mentioned condition the soul, we remember (pp. 1, 20 *supra*), has four great attributes:

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perfect perception of, and faith in, the reality of things; perfect knowledge; perfect power; and perfect happiness. Karmic matter keeps the soul from the realization of this fourfold greatness, obscuring its perception and knowledge, obstructing its progress and success, and disturbing the equanimity of its existence. It is therefore called the four *ghātiya* or destructive karmas. Their names are—

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*jñānāvaraṇīya*, or knowledge-obscuring karma; *darśanāvaraṇīya*, or faith-obscuring or perception-obscuring karma; *antarāya*, that which hinders or obstructs the progress or success of the soul; *mohanīya*, that which infatuates or deludes the soul (or makes it lose equilibrium of thought and feeling).

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These destructive karmas retain the soul in mundane existence, the character of which is conditioned by another quartet of karmas, the latter not destructive, but determining merely the body and the environments in which the mundane soul must exist. They are called *aghātiya*, or non-destructive, karmas. Their names are—

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*āyus*, the karma which determines the duration of our lives or other conditions; *nāma*, that which determines the character of our individuality, i.e. our body, height, size, colour, etc.; *gotra*, that which determines our family, nationality, etc.; *vedanīya*, that which gives pleasure or pain in mundane life.

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This division of *karmas* is neither arbitrary nor fantastic: it is based upon everyday observation and experience, and it is necessary. In Jainism every effect has a cause. The obvious differences in people's conditions are not for nothing: they are the effects of some cause. Three possible causes suggest themselves: (1) a personal God, who for some mysterious reasons of His own, or for His whim merely, brings about these differences in mankind; (2) the constitution and modification of matter itself; (3) the soul. A personal God has no place in Jainism: He is not needed. Matter is dead, inert, and cannot be the responsible agent of these differences. There remains, therefore, the conscious soul, which by its actions (*karmas*) is responsible for the changes in our status of life, etc. Once this position is realized, the classification of *karmas* is readily understood.

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Connected with the idea of *karma* is the famous doctrine of incarnation or transmigration of souls. Much unnecessary difficulty is raised about this. There are two aspects of it. In one the very existence of the soul is denied; and to this Jainism has nothing to say. In the other the soul is believed to exist, but its full possibilities are not considered. Simplicity is gained at the expense of exactness and truth. The soul's life is cut up into two sharp and arbitrary divisions: this life and the life beyond until eternity. Man sows here, and he reaps here and in the existence after death, in hell or in heaven, till the day of judgment. This is the Muhammadan and Christian doctrine. The reward and forgiveness are also dependent upon the will of God, who may be guided by what His beloved Muhammad or His Son Christ may interpose. To Jainism this simple and anthropomorphic doctrine seems unsatisfactory. There is double intermediation and arbitrariness in it; a sinful life can be purged of its bitterness and sorrow by the simple intermediation of Christ or Muhammad; and the working of the divine law is arbitrary, for no one can know the results of his actions till the Day of Judgment is over! Jainism denies both intermediation and forgiveness; of what we have done we must bear the consequences. It is not fate, nor even predestination; but it is the ever continuous balancing of the different accounts that we keep with the forces of life. There can be no mistake, no suppression, and no evasion. The credit and the debit side go on automatically; and whatever is due to us is paid us ungrudgingly and without demand. The continuity cannot be broken by change of house: the debts of London are not extinguished by going to Berlin; nor is liquidation suspended till the Day of Judgment. The *karmas* are not extinguished simply because we give up the body called A. When we are dead as A, the *karmas* must still bear full fruits. The *karmas* constitute the karmic body; and it drags us into another state of being, it maybe the ethereal structure of a god's luminous and plastic embodiment, or the grosser and limited frame of a human or a sub-human being. The last day of Jainism is the day when the last *karma* falls off; matter bids good-bye to the soul, and the *jīva* enters *nirvāṇa*. It is a day of perfect calm, of serene being, of everlasting happiness.

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By the experiences and sufferings of innumerable lives every error, every weakness has been detected, outlived, and purged; in the light of *samyag-jñāna* the substances shine forth transparent and mysteryless in their eternal attributes, and their power to fascinate is exposed as the child of infatuation and ignorance. Reincarnation, then, instead of being an evil or a terror, is the necessary principle of enabling the soul to go on rectifying its errors and realizing its powers and purposes in life. *Karma* stands to reincarnation as cause to effect.

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The eight varieties of this cause have been given above. There are four points of view from which the bondage of soul by matter may be considered: from the nature of the bondage (*prakṛiti*)—of this there are eight kinds, as given above; from its duration (*sthiti*); from the intensity with which the karmic matter binds the soul (*anubhāga*); and from the number of particles or quantity of matter attaching to the soul (*pradeśa*). *Sthiti* may be said to be karma considered with reference to time; *anubhāga*, with reference to space; *pradeśa*, with reference to matter; and *prakṛiti* with reference to soul.

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The eight kinds of *karmas* from the *prakṛiti* point of view are subdivided into 148 main classes called the "148 *prakṛitis*" of *karmas*. They are as follows:—

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I. *Jñānāvaraṇīya*: *jñāna*, knowledge, is of five kinds (see pp. 59–60), and so also the knowledge-obscuring *karmas* are of five kinds according as they obscure (1) *mati*, (2) *śruti*, (3) *avadhi*, (4) *manaḥparyāya*, or (5) *kevala jñāna*.

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II. *Darśanāvaraṇīya*, faith-obscuring or perception-obscuring karmas, are of nine kinds— *chakshur-darśanāvaraṇīya*, that which obscures the physical sight, which is perception by means of the eyes; *achakshur-darśanāvaraṇīya*, that which obscures other kinds of perception; *avadhi-darśanāvaraṇīya*, that which obscures perception of the past; *kevala-darśanāvaraṇīya*, that which obscures full perception; *nidrā-vedanīya*, that condition of sleepiness which obscures perception; *nidrānidrā-vedanīya*, condition of heavy sleep which obscures perception; *prachalā-vedanīya*, condition of restless sleep which obscures perception; *prachalaprachalā-vedanīya*, condition in which sleep is very restless and which obscures perception; *styānagṛddhi-vedanīya*, somnambulistic condition, in which there is hardly any perception of the acts done.

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III. Of the obstructing (*antarāya*) karmas there are five kinds— *dāna-antarāya*, that class of karmas, which obstructs charity; *lābha-antarāya*, which obstructs profit of any kind; *bhoga-antarāya*, which obstructs enjoyment; *upabhoga-antarāya*, which obstructs the circumstances attending enjoyment; *vīrya-antarāya*, which obstructs power.

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IV. Of the delusive (*mohanīya*) karmas there are twenty-eight kinds. According as the infatuation affects perception or conduct it is called respectively perception-infatuating (*darśana-mohanīya*) or conduct-infatuating (*chāritra-mohanīya*).

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A. *Darśana-mohanīya* is of three kinds: (1) *samyaktva-*, infatuation which affects or blurs perfect perception; (2) *mithyātva-*, infatuation which occasions false perception; (3) *miśra*, infatuation which is a mixture of the first two.

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B. *Chāritra-mohanīya* is of twenty-five kinds. It relates partly to the four passions (*kaṣāya*)—anger, pride, deception, and greed, each one of which may (1) accompany false belief (*anantānubandhi*); (2) obstruct partial renunciations, i.e. the rise of soul to the fifth stage of its evolution (see *guṇa-sthānas*, pp. 48–52), then it is called *apratyākhyāna-āvaraṇīya*; (3) obstruct total renunciation, i.e. the sixth *guṇa-sthāna*, then it is called *pratyākhyāna-āvaraṇīya*; and (4) keep self-restraint (*samyama*) impure (*sañjvalana*). These give us sixteen kinds of conduct-infatuation. The remaining nine (*akaṣāya*) are: *hāsya*, frivolity; *rati*, sentiments of attachment (or Eros); *arati*, sentiment of aversion; *śoka*, sorrow; *bhaya*, fear; *jugupsā*, dislike; *strī*, effeminacy; *puruṣa*, masculine behaviour in women; *napuṃsaka*, spadonic behaviour in man or woman (35).

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The classification of the four non-destructive karmas is: I. *Nāma*, which determines the character of our body, size, colour, height, etc., etc., is of two kinds: *piṇḍa-prakṛti*, concrete qualities, and *apiṇḍa-prakṛti*, non-concrete qualities. A *piṇḍa-prakṛti* is of sixty-five Four *gatis*, or kinds of states of existence : (1) of gods, (2) of denizens of hell, (3) of human beings, (4) of non-human beings, as animals, insects, plants, and mineral beings ;

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Five *jātis*, or kinds of living beings : (1) with the sense of touch only, (2) with senses of touch and taste, (3) with touch, taste, and smell, (4) with touch, taste, smell, and sight, and (5) with touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing ;

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Five *śarīras*, or bodies : (1) *audārika*, the physical body of all men and animals, (2) *vaikriyika*, the body of gods and denizens of hell, (3) *āhāraka*, the special body of saints in doubt (see p. 44), (4) *taijasa*, the magnetic, and (5) *kārmaṇa*, or karmic, bodies of all embodied souls ;

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Three *aṅgopāṅgas*, members and sub-members, relating to (1) *audārika*, (2) *vaikriyika*, and (3) *āhāraka* bodies. The *aṅga-nāma-karma* is of many kinds, as being *śiro-nāma* (head), *uro-nāma* (breast or chest), *prishṭha-nāma* (back), *bāhu-nāma* (arms), *udara-nāma* (stomach), and *pāda - nāma* (feet). The *upāṅga-nāma-karma* is *sparśa-nāma* (touch), *rasa-nāma* (taste), *ghrāṇa-nāma* (smell), *chakshur-nāma* (sight), and *śrotra-nāma* (hearing); the *upāṅgas* of *śiro-nāma* (head) are also many, as forehead, skull, palate, cheek, chin, teeth, lips, brow, eyes, ears, nostrils, etc. ;

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Two *sthāna*(or *vihāyaḥ*)-*nāma-karmas*, relating to *pramāṇa*, size, and *nirmāṇa*, position of members.

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To “bind”, i.e. keep these members and sub-members together, we need a binding force, which is called *bandhana-nāma-karma*, and is of five kinds—

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Five *bandhana-nāma-karmas*, according as they keep together the five kinds of bodies; e.g. the nervous system in the physical body;

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Five *saṅghāta-nāma-karmas*, which relate to the unifying principle in the five bodies;

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Six *saṃsthāna-nāma-karmas*, relating to proportionate form or build of the body: (1) *sama-chatura*, all-round symmetry; (2) *nyagrodha-parimaṇḍala*, more or less round, like the banyan or *vaṭa*-tree, on the upper part of the body, and small or short in the lower limbs; (3) *sāchi (svāti)*, the reverse of (2), i.e. short at the top and long in the lower limbs; (4) *kubja*, hunchback; (5) *vāmana*, dwarf; (6) *huṇḍaka*, with knotty limbs;

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Six *saṃhanana-nāma-karmas*, relating to the joints, bones, and sinews of the body: (1) *vajra-vṛishabha-nārācha-saṃhanana*, unbreakable and strong like adamant; (2) *vajra-nārācha*, like stone; (3) *nārācha*, unbreakable; (4) *ardha-nārācha*, semi-unbreakable; (5) *kīlikā*, as strong as a riveted body; (6) *sphaṭika*, crystal-like, or *asamprāptāsṛpāṭika*;

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Five *varṇa-nāma-karmas*, determining the colours of the body: (1) *kṛishṇa*, black; (2) *harita*, green; (3) *pīta*, yellow; (4) *rohita*, red; (5) *śveta*, white;

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Two *gandha-nāma-karmas*, determining the odorous or malodorous character of the body;

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Five *rasa-nāma-karmas*, determining the taste; (1) pungent, (2) bitter, (3) saline, (4) acid or sour, (5) sweet;

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Eight *sparśa-nāma-karmas*, determining the qualities of touch: (1) light, (2) heavy, (3) soft, (4) hard, (5) rough, (6) smooth, (7) cold, and (8) hot;

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Four *ānupūrvī-nāma-karmas*, determining the condition and character of the state of existence to which the soul is proceeding after leaving its present body.

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B. The next large division of *nāma-karma* comprises *apiṇḍa-prakritis*, non-concrete qualities. These have twenty-eight main subdivisions as follows:—

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Eight kinds of *prakritis*: (1) *upaghāta*, having a body fatal to oneself, as ostrich’s feathers, antelope’s antlers, the navel of the musk-deer, etc.; (2) *paraghāta*, having a body likely to be fatal to others, e.g. lion’s teeth, claws, etc.; (3) *ātapa*, warm body; (4) *uddyota*, brilliant body; (5) *uchchhvāsa*, respiration; (6–7) *vihāyo-gati*, the ability to move or fly in the air, approved and not approved; (8) *agurulaghu*, body which is neither heavy nor light;

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Ten kinds of *prakritis*, which are: (1) *trasa*, body of a movable soul; (2) *bādara*, heavy or gross; (3) *sthira*, steady or stationary; (4) *paryāpta*, complete; (5) *pratyeka*, peculiar or individual; (6) *śubha*, auspicious; (7) *subhāgya*, fortunate; (8) *susvara*, sweet-voiced; (9) *ādeya*, influential; (10) *yaśaḥ-kīrti*, famous;

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Ten opposite kinds of *prakritis*: (1) *sthāvara*, body of an immovable soul; (2) *sūkshma*, fine; (3) *asthira*, unsteady; (4) *aparyāpta*, incomplete; (5) *sādhāraṇa*, shared with others; (6) *aśubha*, inauspicious; (7) *durbhāgya*, unfortunate; (8) *duḥsvara*, harsh-toned; (9) *anādeya*, without influence; (10) *apayaśaḥ*, infamous.

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II. *Āyuḥ-karma* determines the duration of existence and relates to the four kinds of existence of (1) gods, (2) denizens of hell, (3) human beings, (4) non-human beings.

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III. *Gotra-karma* determines the high or low family and nationality, and is accordingly of two kinds, (1) *uchcha-gotra*, (2) *nīcha-gotra*.

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IV. *Vedanīya-karma* in its working causes to the individual pain or pleasure, and is accordingly of two kinds, (1) *asāta*, (2) *sāta*.

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A tabular account of the 148 *prakṛitis* may be given here (see Folding Table).

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The details of the eight kinds of *karmas*, or their 148 subdivisions, can be worked out at an infinite length. One may call this doctrine of Jainism almost spiritual mathematics. Every effect in the world, every phenomenon, every feeling, every hope, every disappointment is a natural and necessary consequence of some action or inaction of the soul. Ignorance, infatuation, the passions may be the cause of it. But the cause never was set in motion by the soul without the effect being forced upon the soul's acceptance. And yet the soul's choice is as unlimited to-day as ever. The only mode of exercising it is to doff ignorance, indetermination, and weakness, face facts, recognize in the bondage of matter and our identification with it the sole source of its power; and then determine to suppress it, to remove this alien matter from ourselves. And then, as Śrī Amṛitachandra Sūri tells us: "by destroying the destructive and non-destructive *karma* perfect freedom will be acquired, the soul will shine out in the fulness of knowledge, its sight of truth will be perfect, its conviction in the eternity of things will be undisturbed hich does not obscu

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NĀMA, body, e

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-prakritis.

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*Six Saṃhananas* (bones, joints, etc.) :—
83. Like adama
84. Like stone.
85. Unbreakabl
86. Semi-unbrea able.
87. Riveted.
88. Crystal-like *Five colours* :—
89. Black.
90. Green.
91. Yellow.
92. Red.
93. White. *Two smells* :—
94. Odorous.
95. Malodorous. *Five tastes* :—
96. Pungent.
97. Bitter.
98. Saline.
99. Sour.
100. Sweet. *Eight touches* :—
101. Light.
102. Heavy.
103. Soft.
104. Hard.
105. Rough.
106. Smooth.
107. Cold.
108. Hot. *Four Anupūrvis*¹
109. Angels.
110. Men.
111. Animals.
112. Infernal bein

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clination to choose TABLE OF KARMAS AND CORRESPONDING QUALITIES The soul is bound by karmic matter

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which obscures the soul's essential nature, and is called destructive or ghātiya karma of four kinds

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which does not obscure the essential nature of soul, and is called aghātiya karma of four kinds

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JÑĀNĀVARA- NIYA, or knowledge-obscuring, of five kinds:—
1. Mati-
2. Śruti-
3. Avadhi-
4. Manaḥparyāya-
5. Kevala-

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DARŚANĀVARAṆIYA, or perception or faith-obscuring, of nine kinds:—
6. Chakshuḥ-
7. Achakshuḥ-
8. Avadhi-
9. Kevala-
10. Nidrā-
11. Nidrā-nidrā-
12. Prachalā-
13. Prachalāprachala-
14. Styāna-gṛddhi-

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MOHANĪYA, or infatuating.

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Perception or Conduct Infatuation of three kinds, of twenty-five kinds:— affecting:— Kaṣāya:—
15. Full perception. Resulting in false
16. False perception. belief.
17. Mixed perception. 18. Anger.
19. Pride.
20. Infatuation.
21. Greed. Obstructing partial renunciation.
22. Anger.
23. Pride.
24. Infatuation.
25. Greed. Obstructing total renunciation.
26. Anger.
27. Pride.
28. Infatuation.
29. Greed. Disturbing restraint.
30. Anger.
31. Pride.
32. Infatuation.
33. Greed. Akashāya:—
34. Hāsya.
35. Rati.
36. Arati.
37. Śoka.
38. Bhaya.
39. Jugupsā.
40. Strī.
41. Puruṣa.
42. Napuṁsaka.

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ANTARĀYA, obstructive, of five kinds, affecting:—
43. Charity.
44. Profit.
45. Enjoyment.
46. Circumstances of enjoyment.
47. Power.

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NĀMA, body, etc.

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Pinda-prakritis. Four Gatis:—
48. Gods.
49. Hell.
50. Men.
51. Non-men. Five Jātis:—
52. One sense.
53. Two senses.
54. Three senses.
55. Four senses.
56. Five senses. Five bodies:—
57. Men's bodies.
58. Gods' bodies.
59. Āhāraka.
60. Magnetic.
61. Karmic. Three Āṅgopāṅgas:—
62. Members of physical bodies.
63. Members of gods' bodies.
64. Members of Āhāraka. Two Sthānas:—
65. Pramāṇa.
66. Nirmāṇa. Five Bandhanas:— 67-71. Of five kinds of bodies. Five Saṁghātas:— 72-76. Of five kinds of bodies. Six Saṁsthānas:—
77. Perfectly symmetrical.
78. Round.
79. Animal frame.
80. Hunchback.
81. Dwarf.
82. Hundaka.

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Six Samhananas (bones, joints, etc.):—
83. Like adamant.
84. Like stone.
85. Unbreakable.
86. Semi-unbreakable.
87. Riveted.
88. Crystal-like. Five colours:—
89. Black.
90. Green.
91. Yellow.
92. Red.
93. White. Two smells:—
94. Odorous.
95. Malodorous. Five tastes:—
96. Pungent.
97. Bitter.
98. Saline.
99. Sour.
100. Sweet. Eight touches:—
101. Light.
102. Heavy.
103. Soft.
104. Hard.
105. Rough.
106. Smooth.
107. Cold.
108. Hot. Four Anupūrvis¹:—
109. Angels.
110. Men.
111. Animals.
112. Infernal beings.

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¹ Anupūrvi = state of the soul in passing from one body to another, and the inclination to choose a particular gati.

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Apinda-prakritis. Eight prakritis:—
113. Upaghāta.
114. Paraghāta.
115. Ātapa.
116. Uddyota.
117. Uchchhvāsa. 118.
119. Vihāyo-ga.
120. Aguru-laghu. Ten prakritis:—
121. Trasa.
122. Bādara.
123. Sthira.
124. Paryāpta.
125. Pratyeka.
126. Subha.
127. Subhāgya.
128. Susvara.
129. Ādeya.
130. Yaśaḥ. Ten opposite prakritis:—
131. Sthāvara.
132. Sūkshma.
133. Asthira.
134. Aparyāpta.
135. Sādhāraṇa.
136. Aśubha.
137. Durbhāgya.
138. Duḥsvara.
139. Anādeya.
140. Apayaśaḥ.

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ĀYUḤ, life duration, of four kinds, as belonging to:—
141. Gods.
142. Denizens of Hell.
143. Men.
144. Non-men.

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GOTRA, family, etc., of two kinds.
145. High.
146. Low.

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VEDANĪYA.
147. Pleasure.
148. Pain.

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and undisturbable; pain and pleasure and their attendant agitation will be no more; calm and peace with bliss ineffable will be the lasting and rightful possession of the soul” (34).

VIII. The Seven Principles (Tattvas) (36–53)

Jīva and Ajīva

c10.s8.t1.1

The principles of Jainism are seven: *jīva*, soul; *ajīva*, non-soul; *āsrava*, karma-movement; *bandha*, karma-bondage; *saṃvara*, karma-check; *nirjarā*, karma-falling off; *moksha*, karma-liberation.

c10.s8.t1.2

The great importance of the logically perfect division into soul (*jīva*) and non-soul (*ajīva*) has been already seen: it is the basis of the six substances and of the five magnitudes. It is further the foundation of the seven principles, and later on, we shall see, also that of the nine categories (*padārthas*). The two great categories are soul and non-soul: these are in combination; and the link between them is that of *karma* (Theology 1).

c10.s8.t1.3

The soul and the non-soul have been considered. It now remains to deal with the forging and the falling away of the fetter of *karma*. There are two steps in the forging—the movement of karmic matter towards the soul (*āsrava*), and the actual inflow of, or bondage of the soul by, karmic matter (*bandha*). There are two steps also in the freeing of the soul from matter—the stoppage of any fresh material ties (called *saṃvara*), and the shedding of the matter in which the soul is actually entangled. The end of the process is *moksha* or *nirvāṇa*, the goal of every true Jaina’s life.

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