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Some Jaina Canonical Sutras c32: Appendix II: Principles of Jainism

Some Jaina Canonical Sūtras c32

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Appendix II: Principles of Jainism

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¹ Chiefly based on Jaina Canonical texts

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Researches in Jainism have made sufficient progress to leave no room for doubt that Jainism is a distinct form of religion with a philosophy of its own. It is true that the final redaction of the Jain Canon was made at Vallabhi as late as the sixth century A. D. and that its language too is later than Pāli, which is the language of the Theravāda Buddhist Canon. There are many ideas and passages common to both the scriptures. Jainism has nevertheless many distinctive characteristics of its own, and historically it occupies a place midway between Brahmanism on the one hand and Buddhism on the other. It cherishes a theory of soul as an active principle in contradistinction to the Vedānta or Sāmkhya doctrine of soul as a passive principle. Buddhism repudiates it. The Jain notion of karma is rather physical while the Buddhist idea of the same is psycho-ethical. In Jainism rebirth takes place by way of transmigration of soul. Buddhism rejects the theory of transmigration. According to Jainism, soul is vitally interested in our actions, since it has to bear the brunt of all of them. As a substance it does not undergo any change. Its changes are all due to the circumstances in which it is placed. It is generally maintained that the yoga method of Jainism is obscure but in the following exposition of the principles we may find that in Jainism too the yoga practice is equally important. In Jainism as in Buddhism the bodily functions cease in the process of yoga after the vocal, and the mental after the physical. The different kinds of knowledge attained through yoga are substantially the same in both the religions. Like the Sāmkhya doctrine Jainism stands for a dualistic conception of soul and matter and in this respect it differs from the Vedāntic pantheism. The Jain dualism may also be interpreted as a pluralistic doctrine like the realism of the Varśeṣika system by which it was influenced. Jainism maintains a hylozoistic notion of nature in which all compound things are different forms of life in varying stages of evolution. The lowest form of life possesses the sense of touch and the highest form all the six senses. This is at the back of tender regard for all forms of life which characterizes the religious life of a Jain who retreats in fear of causing harm. The Jain motto of life is ascetic or stoic. The path to happiness and progress lies through self-denial, self-abnegation and self-mortification. All the rules of conduct and religious practices are therefore designed to that very end. The chain of reasoning followed in Jainism to establish the universal religion of non-harming is generally missed. Here an attempt has been made to set it out as clearly as possible and to compare it with that in Buddhism as far as we have thought it necessary.

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Ahiṃsā or non-harming is the first principle of higher life which Mahāvīra inculcated to his disciples and followers. Its visible effect was sought to be shown how even such brute creation as the beasts and birds, reptiles and fishes, happily responded to the non-harming and compassionate attitude of men.

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The doctrine of karma which Mahāvīra taught, went to make men conscious of their responsibility for all their acts, mental, vocal or bodily. Karma may be worked off by austerity, service rendered to ascetics or to the poor, the helpless and the suffering by giving them food, water, shelter or clothing. A man's action becomes an obstacle to the progress of soul, if greatly influenced by such Kaṣāyas as anger, pride, deceit or greed. Karma may be divided according to its nature, duration, essence and content. It is intimately bound up with the soul. There are eight kinds of karma. The first kind hides knowledge from us (jñānāvaraṇīya), the second kind prevents us from beholding the true faith (darśanāvaraṇīya), the third kind causes us to experience either the sweetness of happiness or the bitterness of misery (vedanīya), the fourth kind bemuses all the human faculties (mohanīya), the fifth kind determines the length of time which a jīva must spend in the form with which his karma has endowed him (āyu), the sixth karma (nāma) decides which of the four states or conditions shall be our particular gati (destiny), the seventh karma is gotra karma which determines a man's life, his occupation, the locality in which he may live, his marriage, his religious observances and even his food.¹ The last and the eighth kind is the antarāya karma which always stands as an obstacle. It prevents a person from entering the path leading to eternal bliss.² The karmic matter keeps the soul confined to the world of attachment and bondage According to Mahāvīra the painful condition of the self is brought about by one’s own action and not by any other cause (fate, chance, creator or the like) Individually a man is born, individually he dies, individually he falls and individually he rises. His passions, consciousness, intellect, perceptions and impressions belong to the individual exclusively. All living beings owe their present form of existence to their own karma. The sinners cannot annihilate any work by new work, the pious annihilate their work by abstention from work.¹ Karma consists of acts, intentional and unintentional, that produce effects on the nature of soul. Soul is susceptible to the influences of karma. The categories of merit and demerit comprehend all acts which keep the soul bound to the circle of births and deaths. Nirjarā consists in the wearing out of accumulated effects of karma on the soul by the practice of austerities (tapasā nirjarā ca). In short Mahāvīra’s great message to mankind is that birth is nothing, that caste is nothing, and that karma is everything, and on the destruction of karma the future happiness depends. There are four kinds of destructive karma² (ghātiyākarma), which retain the soul in mundane existence. Jainism as a practical religion teaches us to purge ourselves of impurities arising from karma.

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¹ Sūtrakṛtānga, I, 12, 15 In Buddhism karma is defined as volition expressed in action (cetanāham bhikkhave kammam vadāmi—Atthasālinī, pp 88ff ) An action is no action until the will is manifested in conduct Karma means consciousness of good and bad, merit and demerit (kammam nāma kusalā-kusalacetanā—Visuddhimagga, II, p 614) Karma produces consequence, retribution is born of action, action is the cause of rebirth, in this way the world continues No action passes from the past life to the present nor from the present to the future (Visuddhimagga, II, p 603) Regarding the relationship between karma (action) and vipāka (consequence), there is no action in consequence and there is no consequence in action Each of them by itself is void An action is void of its consequence which comes through action and consequence comes into existence on account of action (Visuddhimagga, II, p 603)

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² B C Law, Mahāvīra His Life and Teachings, p 104

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In Hinduism we find that God inflicts punishment for evil karma (action) whereas in Jainism karma accumulates energy and automatically works it off without any outside intervention. The Hindus think of karma as formless while Jains think of it as having form. According to the Pali Nikāyas an ancient householder teacher of India was the first expounder of the doctrine of action. (Majjhima Nikāya, I, p 483). The Jaina Sūtrakṛtānga speaks of various types of Kriyāvāda or karmavāda then current in India (1. 6. 27; 1 10 17) Buddhism as a form of karmavāda is distinguished from Sathāyadristi involving various types of non-action (akriyā), scepticism (vicikitsā) and formalism (śīlavrata-parāmarśa). One man admits action and another man does not admit it. Both men are alike. The case is the same because they are actuated by the same force, i.e. by destiny. It is on account of their destiny that all beings come to have a body to undergo the vicissitudes of life and to experience pleasure and pain.

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According to the Sūtrakṛtāṅga the types of akriyāvāda are as follows:—

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(1) On the dissolution of the five elements, e.g. earth, water, fire, wind and air, living beings cease to exist. On the dissolution of the body the individual ceases to be. Everybody has an individual soul. The soul exists as long as the body exists.

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(2) When a man acts or causes another to act, it is not his soul which acts or causes to act.¹

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(3) There are five elements and the soul is a sixth substance. These six substances are imperishable.

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(4) Pleasure, pain, and final beatitude are not caused by the souls themselves, but the individual souls experience them.

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(5) The world has been created or is governed by the gods. It is produced from chaos (Sūtrakṛtāṅga, I 1 3.5-8)

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(6) The world is boundless and eternal.

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All these views are reduced to four main types that correspond to those associated in the Pali Nikāyas with four leading thinkers of the time, e.g. atheism like that of Ajita, eternalism like that of Kātyāyana, absolutism like that of Kāśyapa and fatalism like that of Gośāla

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The types of kriyāvāda that do not come up to the standard of Jainism are the following:—

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(1) The soul of a man who is pure will become free from bad karma on reaching beatitude but in that state it will again become defiled through pleasant excitement or hatred.

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(2) If a man with the intention of killing a body hurts a gourd mistaking it for a baby, he will be guilty of murder If a man with the intention of roasting a gourd roasts a baby, mistaking him for a gourd, he will not be guilty of murder.

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The Jains do not deny the existence of the soul as an eternal substance with consciousness as its fundamental attribute.² It is an active principle since it has to bear the whole brunt of actions The road to final deliverance lies in four-fold means of right knowledge, faith, conduct, and austerities. Final deliverance or *mukti* is the freedom from pain It is perfection. It is the safe, happy and quiet place which is reached by the great sages It is the eternal place, difficult of approach.¹ Dharma, adharma, space, time, matter and soul are the six substances They are imperishable and eternal by their very nature² Each of them is a substance but time, matter and souls form an infinite number of substances. The characteristic of *dharma* is motion That of *adharma* is immobility³ and that of space (*ākāśa*) is to make room. The characteristic of time is duration, that of soul is the realization of knowledge, faith, conduct, austerities, energy and realization of its developments Soul (*jīva*), the inanimate things (*ajīva*), the binding of the soul by *karma*, merit (*puṇya*), demerit (*pāpa*), that which causes the soul to be affected by sins (*āsrava*), the prevention of sins by watchfulness (*saṃvara*), annihilation of *karma* (*karma-kṣaya*) and final deliverance (*mokṣa*) are the nine truths⁴ The doctrine of nine terms (*navatattva*) represents the main system of Jainism.⁵ *Jīva* and *ajīva* comprehend the world of existence as known and experienced. The world of life is represented by six classes of living beings, while the movable things are the fire lives, wind lives, and those with an organic body. *Saṃvara* is the principle of

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¹ Uttarādhyayana, XXIII, 81-84

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² Sūtrakṛtānga, I, 1, 15-16

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³ Ibid, I, 1, 2, 3, I, 1, 4, 2

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⁴ Ibid, XXVIII 14 The actions which lead to the good *karma* which brings peace of mind are called *puṇya* *Puṇya* is of various kinds *annapuṇya* (merit acquired by giving food to the deserving people), *pānapuṇya* (merit acquired by giving water to the thirsty), *vastrapuṇya* (merit acquired by giving clothes to the poor especially to the monks), *layanapuṇya* (merit acquired by building or lending a house to a monk), *śayana-puṇya* (merit acquired by providing seats and beds), *manapuṇya* (merit acquired by thinking good of every one), *kāyapuṇya* (merit acquired by saving a life or rendering service), *vacanapuṇya* (merit acquired by speaking without hurting anybody's feelings) and *namaśkārapuṇya* (merit acquired by reverent salutations) There are various kinds of *pāpa* or sin *Jīvahimsā* (life slaughter) is the most heinous of all the crimes according to Jains Sins are also acquired by speaking falsehood, dishonesty, unchastity, covetousness, anger, conceit, attachment and avarice

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⁵ Cf Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, XXVIII, 14

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The nine main terms of Jainism which became current and widely known as early as the time of the Buddha include *nijjarā* and *mokkha* (*Devadaha sutta*, *Majjhima Nikāya*, II, p 214

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‘purānānam kammānam tapasā vyantibhāvā,
navānam kammānam akaranā āyatim anavassavo,
āyatim anavassavā kammakkhayo, kammakkhayā
dukkhakkhayo, dukkhakkhayā vedanakkhayo,
vedanakkhayā sabbam dukkham nijjiṇṇam bhavissati’

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Here the term *nijjiṇṇam* occurs, which implies the idea of *nijjarā* self-control by which the influx of sins is checked. The category of *Samvara* comprehends the whole sphere of right conduct. *Samvara* is an aspect of *tapas*.¹ *Mokṣa* is the essential point in the teachings of Mahāvīra, which is generally understood as emancipation. It really means the attainment of the highest state of sanctification by the avoidance of pains and miseries of worldly life. It is the *summum bonum* or the state of perfect beatitude as attained. It may also mean final deliverance or liberation from the fetters of worldly life and total annihilation or extinction of human passion.

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Faith is produced by nature (*nisarga*), instruction (*upadeśa*), command (*ājñā*), study of the *sūtras*, suggestion (*bīja*), comprehension of the meaning of the sacred lore (*abhigama*), complete course of study (*vistāra*), religious exercise (*kriyā*), brief exposition (*samkhepa*) and reality (*dharma*)²

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He who truly understands by a spontaneous effort of his mind the nature of soul, inanimate things, merit and demerit and who puts an end to sins (*āsravasamvara*), believes by nature. He who believes the four truths taught by the Jinas believes by nature. He who believes these truths, having learnt them from somebody else, believes by instruction. He who has got rid of love, hatred, delusion and ignorance, believes by command. He who obtains righteousness by the study of the *sūtras* believes by the study of the *sūtras*. He who knows the sacred lore believes by the comprehension of the sacred lore. He who understands the true nature of all substances believes by a complete course of study. He who sincerely performs all duties by right knowledge, faith, etc., believes by religious exercise. He who is not versed in the sacred doctrines believes by brief exposition. He who believes in the truth of the realities, believes by reality There is no right conduct without right belief, it must be cultivated for obtaining the right faith; righteousness and conduct originate together or righteousness precedes conduct.¹ Without right faith there is no right knowledge, without right knowledge there is no virtuous conduct, without virtues there is no deliverance and without deliverance (moksa) there is no perfection.²

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¹ Uttarādhyayana, XXVIII, 29

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² Ibid , XXVIII, 30

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Austerities are two-fold: external and internal. By knowledge one knows things, by faith one believes in them, by conduct one gets freedom from karma and by austerities one reaches purity.³ Great sages whose object is to get rid of all misery proceed to perfection having destroyed their karma by control and austerities.

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³ Ibid , XXVIII, 34

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Mahāvīra has given instructions regarding exertion in righteousness. Those who believe in it, accept it, practise it, comply with it, study it, and understand it, have obtained perfection, enlightenment, deliverance and final beatitude He has dealt with the following subjects.—

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(1) *Longing for liberation*: By longing for liberation, the soul obtains an intense desire of the Law. By an intense desire of the Law, he quickly arrives at an increased longing for liberation. He destroys anger, pride, deceit and greed. He becomes possessed of right faith and by the purity of faith, he will reach perfection after one birth.

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(2) *Disregard of worldly objects*. By disregard of worldly objects, the soul quickly feels disgust for pleasures enjoyed by men, gods and animals. He becomes indifferent to all objects; thereby he ceases to engage in any undertaking with the result that he enters the road to perfection.

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(3) *Desire of the Law* By the desire of the Law, the soul becomes indifferent to pleasures. He abandons the life of a householder and as a houseless monk, he puts an end to all pains, mental and bodily.

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(4) *Obedience to the co-religionists and to the guru*: By obedience to them, the soul obtains discipline. By discipline and avoidance of misconduct he avoids being born as a denizen of hell; by devotion to the guru, he obtains truth as a good man and gains perfection and beatitude.

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(5) *Confession of sins before the guru*: By this act the soul gets rid of the thorns of deceit, wrong belief, etc. He obtains simplicity and annihilates karma.

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(6) *Repenting for one's sins to oneself*: By this act the soul obtains repentance and becoming indifferent by repentance, he prepares for himself an ascending scale of virtues by which he destroys *karma*.

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(7) *Repenting for one's sins before the guru*: By this act the soul obtains humility. He will leave off all blamable occupations and apply himself to praiseworthy callings.

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(8) *Moral and intellectual purity of the soul*: By such purity the soul ceases from sinful occupations.

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(9) *Adoration of the 24 Jinas*: By this adoration the soul arrives at purity of faith.

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(10) *Paying reverence to the guru*: By this act the soul destroys such *karma* as leads to birth in low families. He wins the affection of the people and brings about general good-will.

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(11) By expiation of sins the soul obviates transgressions of the vows; thereby he stops the *āsravas* or influx of sins.

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(12) By a particular posture of the body (*kāyotsarga*) the soul gets rid of past and present transgressions which require *prāyaścitta* (expiatory rites).

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(13) By self-denial the soul shuts the doors against the *āsravas* ¹ and prevents desires arising in him.

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(14) By praises and hymns he obtains wisdom consisting in knowledge, faith and conduct.

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(15) By keeping the right time he destroys *karma* which obstructs right knowledge.

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(16) By practising penance he gets rid of sins and commits no transgressions.

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(17) By begging forgiveness he obtains happiness of mind.

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(18) By study he destroys *karma* which obstructs right knowledge.

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(19) By the recital of the sacred texts he obtains destruction of *karma* and preserves the sacred lore.

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(20) By questioning the teachers he arrives at a correct comprehension of the *sūtra* and its meaning.

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(21) By repetition he reproduces the sounds or syllables and commits them to memory.

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(22) By pondering on what he has learnt he loosens the firm hold which the seven kinds of *karma* have upon the soul, he shortens their duration and mitigates their power.

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(23) By religious discourses he obtains destruction of *karma*, he exalts the creed and by exalting the creed he acquires *karma* for the future bliss.

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(24) By the acquisition of sacred knowledge he destroys ignorance.

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(25) *By concentration of his thoughts* he obtains stability of the mind.
(26) *By control* he obtains freedom from sins.
(27) *By austerities* he cuts off *karma*.
(28) *By cutting off karma* he obtains freedom from actions.
(29) *By renouncing pleasures* he obtains freedom from false longing.

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(30) *By mental independence* he gets rid of attachment.
(31) *By using unfrequented lodgings and beds* he obtains *gupti* or conduct. He will be steady in his conduct.
(32) *By turning away from the world* he will strive to do no bad actions.

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(33) *By giving up collections of alms in one district only* (*ekamaṇḍalyām āhārakaraṇam*) he overcomes obstacles.
(34) *By abandoning articles of use* he obtains successful study.
(35) *By not taking forbidden food* he ceases to act for the sustenance of his life.

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(36) *By conquering his passions* he becomes free from passions.
(37) *By renouncing activity* he obtains inactivity. By ceasing to act, he acquires no new *karma*.
(38) *By renouncing his body* he acquires the pre-eminent virtues of the siddhas (perfected ones)
(39) *By shunning company* he obtains singleness and avoids disputes, quarrels, passions, etc.
(40) *By giving up all food* he prevents his birth many times.
(41) *By perfect renunciation* he enters the final stage of pure meditation wherefrom there is no return

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(42) *By conforming to the standard of a monk's life* he obtains ease and will be careful. He will inspire all beings with confidence and practise austerities.
(43) *By doing service* he acquires *karma* which brings about for him the name and family name of a Tīrthakara.
(44) *By fulfilling all virtues* he will not be born again.
(45) *By freedom from passions* he destroys the ties of attachment and desire.

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(46) *By patience* he overcomes troubles.
(47) *By freedom from greed* he obtains voluntary poverty.
(48) *By simplicity* he will become upright.
(49) *By humility* he will acquire freedom from self-conceit.
(50) *By sincerity of mind* he will obtain purity of mind.
(51) *By sincerity in religious practice* he obtains proficiency in it.

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up no space, and then the soul develops into the real form and obtains perfection.¹

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¹ Uttarādhyayana, XXIX, 73 Every jīva has two bodies, kārmana and taijasa, and also a third which may be audārika or vaikreya Every jīva, save and except a Perfected One, forms round it through its karma a body which is called its kārmana body and another invisible body, taijasa, which at its death will enable it to assume a new form These two unseen bodies are indestructible S Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, p 206 Cf the Brahmanical conception of the sthūla (gross), sūkṣma (subtle, or also called linga) and kārana bodies assumed by the soul

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A person becomes free from sins by abstaining from life-slaughter, falsehood, theft, and sexual indulgence. He becomes free from sins by possessing five samitis and three guptis, by freedom from passions, by subduing the senses, by conquering conceit, and avoiding delusion.²

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² Uttarādhyayana, XXX

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Hurtful acts (danda) are three-fold as referring to thoughts, words and acts. Conceited acts (gārava) are pride of riches, of taste and of pleasure or fashion. Delusive acts are māyā, nidāna and false-belief (mithyādarśana). A monk who well bears calamities will not be subject to transmigration. He who always avoids the four different kinds of praises, passions, expressions of the emotions, and of the four meditations, will not be subject to transmigration. He who always exerts himself with regard to the five vows, the five objects of sense, the five samitis and the five actions, will not be subject to transmigration. He who always exerts himself with regard to the six leśyās,³ the six kinds of bodies and the six regular functions as eating, will not be subject to transmigration. He who always exerts himself with regard to the seven rules of accepting alms and the seven causes of danger to others, will not be subject to transmigration. He who always exerts himself with regard to the eight objects of pride, and the ten-fold Law of the monks, will not be subject to transmigration. The eight objects of pride are: caste, family, beauty, etc.⁴

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³ Leśyā is said to be that by means of which the soul is tinted with merit and demerit It arises from yoga or kaṣāya

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⁴ Of Sūtrakṛtānga, II, 2, 17

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By the teaching of true knowledge, by the avoidance of ignorance and delusion, and by the destruction of love and hatred one arrives at deliverance which is nothing but bliss

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Obstruction to knowledge is five-fold: (a) obstruction to knowledge derived from the sacred books (sūtra), (b) obstruction to perception (ābhinibodhika), (c) obstruction to supernatural knowledge (avadhi-jñāna), (d) knowledge of the thoughts of other people (manahparyāya), (e) the highest, unlimited knowledge (kevala)⁵ The following are the different blue leśyā has the colour of the blue aśoka (Jonesia-aśoka) having red flowers. The grey leśyā has the colour of the flower of atasī (Linum usitatissimum) having blue flowers. The red leśyā has the colour of vermilion. The yellow leśyā has the colour of orpiment. The white leśyā has the colour of conch-shell. The taste of the black leśyā is more bitter than that of tumbaka (Lagenaria vulgaris). The taste of the blue leśyā is more pungent than black pepper and dry ginger. The taste of grey leśyā is more pleasant than that of ripe mango. The degrees of the leśyās are three or nine or twenty-seven or eighty-one or two hundred and forty-three Each of these degrees is three-fold: low, middle and high A man who acts on the impulse of the five sins, who commits cruel acts, who is wicked and mischievous, develops the black leśyā. A monk who has anger, ignorance, hatred, wickedness, deceit, greed, carelessness, love of enjoyment, etc., develops the blue leśyā. A man who is dishonest in words and acts, a heretic, a deceiver, a thief, etc., develops the grey leśyā. A man who is humble, well-disciplined, restrained, free from deceit, who loves the law, develops the red leśyā. A man who controls himself, who is attentive to his study and duties, develops the yellow leśyā. A man who controls himself, who abstains from constant thinking about his misery, who is free from passion, who is calm, and who subdues his senses, develops the white leśyā The black, blue and grey leśyās are the lowest leśyās, through them the soul is brought into miserable courses of life The red, yellow and white leśyās are the good leśyās, through them the soul is brought into happy courses of life In the first and last moment of all these leśyās, when they are joined with the soul, the latter is not born into a new existence.¹

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⁵ The first kind of knowledge corresponds to what the Buddhists call Sutamayāpaññā, the second kind to what they call cintamayāpaññā, the third

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¹ Uttarādhyayana, XXXV

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Things without life are: (1) possessing form, and (2) formless. There are ten kinds of formless things, e.g. dharma, adharma, space, division, time, etc.² Dharma, adharma and space are ever without beginning and end. The four kinds of things possessing form are compound things, their divisions, their indivisible parts and atoms. Subtle things occur all over the world. Living beings are of two kinds: those still belonging to the saṃsāra, and the perfected souls. The perfected souls have no visible form They are developed into knowledge and faith and they possess paramount happiness. Living beings are of two kinds; movable and immovable. The earth-lives are of two kinds, subtle and gross The subtle earth is but of one kind as there is no Mahāvīra, those who hold this view do not understand that things depend partly on fate and partly on human exertion. The doctrine of the *akriyāvādins*¹ augments the misery of worldly existence. He who intends to kill a living being, but does not do it by his bodily act, and he who unknowingly kills one, both are affected by that act. There are three ways of committing sins: by one’s own action, by commission, and by approval of the deed. One reaches *Nirvāṇa* by the purity of heart. The world is boundless. In this world living beings suffer individually for their deeds. A learned or a virtuous man will be punished for his deed when he is given to actions of deceit. Men who are drowned in lust and addicted to pleasures will be deluded for want of control. One should exert and control oneself and follow the commandments proclaimed by the *Arhats* (the elect). Heroes of faith who do not commit sins, and exert themselves aright, who subdue anger and fear, will never kill living beings. A worthy and wise man should be careful in this world. He who has entered the road leading to the destruction of *karma*, who controls his mind, speech, and body, who has given up his possessions and relations, should walk about subduing his senses. A sage bears pleasant and unpleasant things. He also bears three kinds of calamities arising from beasts, men and gods. He does not fear for his life. A wise man should not quarrel, should possess right conduct, should be guarded in his words and thoughts. He should adopt for his welfare the best and the highest law proclaimed in this world by the Jina. A person should look at beatitude as the end in view. Virtuous men regard pleasures as equal to diseases. The unhappy suffer again and again from delusion. When calamity befalls a man or the end of his life draws near, he must go. The wise believes that there is nothing to protect him. All living beings owe their present form of existence to their own *karma*. The wicked suffering latent misery err about in the circle of births, subject to birth, old age and death. One should not kill living beings in the three-fold way (by thoughts, words, and acts), being intent on spiritual welfare and abstaining from sins¹

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² Ibid, XXXVI

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¹ Both Mahāvīra and Buddha declared themselves as *kriyāvādins* or upholders of the doctrine of action. The doctrine of action which Mahāvīra taught makes men conscious of their responsibility for all their acts, mental, vocal or bodily. This doctrine has also awakened the consciousness that salvation is not a gift of favour but an attainment within human possibility. In the teachings of Mahāvīra *kriyāvāda* is sharply distinguished from *akriyāvāda* (doctrine of non-action), *ajñānavāda* (scepticism) and *vinayavāda* (formalism), precisely as in the words of the Buddha. Buddhism has been promulgated as a form of *kriyāvāda* or *karmavāda*. In order to arrive at a correct understanding of the doctrinal significance of *kriyāvāda* in Jainism it is necessary not only to see how it has been distinguished from *akriyāvāda*, *ajñānavāda* and *vinayavāda* but also from other types of *kriyāvāda*.

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A wise man should neither himself commit violence nor order others to do so nor consent to the violence done by somebody else. A clever man should not be defiled by sin. All beings are fond of life, like pleasure, hate pain, shun destruction, and desire to live. To all life is dear.² The clever one who adopts the true faith stands in the right place. The world is greatly troubled by women. He is called a hero who is not vexed by the hardships caused by control. The hero does not tolerate discontent and lust; he is not careless, he is not attached to the objects of the senses. A sage who adopts the life of wisdom should treat his gross body roughly. He who has right intuition uses mean and rough food. A wise man who knows the world and has cast off the idea of the world should prudently conquer the impediment to righteousness. Giving up all gaiety, circumspect, and restrained, one should lead a religious life. The liberated conquers wrath, pride, deceit, and greed. He who conquers one passion, conquers many and he who conquers many, conquers one. A wise man should avoid love, hatred, delusion, birth, death, hell, animal existence, anger, pride, deceit, and greed. For the liberated there is no passage from birth to birth. The greatest temptation in this world is woman. When strongly vexed by the influence of the senses he should mortify himself, stand upright, wander from village to village, take no food at all, and withdraw his mind from women. The self is the knower or experiencer and the knower is the self. Some who embrace the law will practise it, being careful about its outward signs, not giving way to worldliness, but being firm. Quitting all worldliness, one should bear all disagreeable feeling being possessed of the right view (samyak-darśana)³ Those who deserve to be called fools, are born again and again. The learned, wise, and steadfast hero will always be victorious in right faith. A saint with right intuition, who cherishes compassion for the world, should preach, spread and praise the faith, knowing the sacred law (vedavid) He should proclaim it among those who exert themselves, not neglecting tranquillity, indifference, patience, liberation, purity, uprightness, gentleness, and freedom from worldly cares. One should preach the law of the mendicants to all kinds of creatures. A man who exerts himself is of a steady mind without attachment, unmoved by passion; having no worldly desires he should live the life of an ascetic. The noble ones having impartially preached the law, those who are awakened, should not wish for pleasure. One who is free from passions is self-controlled, knowing birth in the upper and nether regions One who is free from desire, cherishes piety.

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The first great vow of the Jains is abstinence from killing living beings.¹ A Jain is careful in his walk. He searches into his mind and speech. He is careful in laying down his utensils of begging. He eats and drinks after proper inspection. The second great vow is avoidance of falsehood.² A Jain speaks after deliberation He comprehends and renounces anger, greed, fear, and mirth. The third great vow is avoidance of theft ³ A Jain begs after deliberation for a limited space. He consumes his food and drink with the permission of his superior. He who has taken possession of some space should always take possession of a limited part of it and for a fixed time.⁴ He should constantly have his grant renewed He may beg for a limited ground from his co-religionists after deliberation. The next vow is avoidance of sensual pleasures.⁵ He should not continually discuss topics relating to women. He should not eat and drink too much. He should not drink liquor or eat highly seasoned dishes.⁶ He should not occupy a bed or a couch belonging to women The last great vow is freedom from possessions ⁷

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¹ Cf the first precept of the Buddhists, pāṇātipātā-veramaṇī

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² Cf Musāvādā-veramaṇī of the Buddhists

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³ Cf Adinnādānā veramaṇī

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⁴ This is known in Theravāda Buddhism as nigaṇthūposatho, Anguttara, I, 205

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⁵ Cf Buddhist Abrahmacariyā-veramaṇī.

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⁶ Cf Sūrāmerayamajjappamādaṭṭhānāveramaṇī

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⁷ Cf Buddhist Jātarūparajatapaṭiggahaṇā veramaṇī

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thing as sacrifice, etc (Of Sāleyyaka Sutta, Majjhima, I, pp 285ff ) There cannot be right faith unless there is a clear pre-perception of the moral, intellectual or spiritual situation which is going to arise Right faith is that form of faith which is only a stepping stone to knowledge (paññā) It is the faith, or conviction acquired by a Buddhist stream-attainer (sotāpanna) who is sure to reach the goal If a living being with his ears hears agreeable or disagreeable sounds,¹ he should not be attached to them If he with his eyes sees agreeable or disagreeable forms, he should not be attached to them. If he with his nose smells agreeable or disagreeable smells, he should not be attached to them² If he with a tongue tastes agreeable or disagreeable things, he should not be attached to them. If he with an organ of feeling feels agreeable or disagreeable touches, he should not be attached to them.³

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There are five samitis and three guptis which constitute eight means of self-control⁴ The samitis⁵ are the following (1) going by paths, trodden by men, beasts, carts, etc., and looking carefully so as not to cause the death of living beings, (2) gentle, sweet and righteous speech; (3) receiving alms in a manner to avoid forty-two faults, (4) receiving and keeping things necessary for religious exercises, and (5) performing the operation of nature in an unfrequented place The three guptis⁶ are the following: (1) preventing mind from sensual pleasures by engaging it in contemplation, study, etc., (2) preventing the tongue from saying bad things by a vow of silence; and (3) putting the body in an immovable posture. The walking of a well-disciplined monk should be pure in respect to the ends, time, road and effort. Knowledge, faith and right conduct are the ends; the time is daytime; the road excludes bad ways; the effort is four-fold as regards substance, space, time, and condition of mind A well disciplined monk should work carefully. He should avoid anger, pride, deceit, greed, laughter, fear, loquacity and slander. He should use blameless and concise speech at the right time. He should avoid while begging faults in the search, in the receiving, and in the use of three things, namely: food, lodging, and the articles of use. There are sixteen *Udgama dosas* (inherent faults) by which food becomes unfit for a Jain monk, e.g. the fault inherent in food which a layman has prepared for religious mendicants, the fault in a kind of food which a layman has prepared for a particular monk, the food which has been prepared for festivities, which has been reserved for a monk, when he has to open locks before he gets at the food, when a monk calls while the dinner is being cooked, and for his sake more food is put in the pot which is on the fire, etc.¹

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¹ Cf Dīgha, I, p 166. *na ehi-bhadantiko, na-tittha-bhadantiko, nābhi-hatam na uddissa-katam na nimantanam sādiyati. So na kumbhi-mulhā pati-ganhāti, na lolopi-mulhā patiganhāti, na elamantaram na dandamantaram na musalamantaram, na dvinnam bhunjamānānam, na gabbhiniyā na pāyamānāya na purisantaragātāya, na samkitsu, na yattha sā upatthito hoti, na yattha malī hilā sanda-sandacārini, na maccham, na mamsam, na suram, na merayam, na thusodam am puati*

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There are ten faults in receiving, e.g. when a monk accepts alms from a frightened layman (*Saṅkita*), when the food is soiled by animate or inanimate matter (*mrakṣita*), when a layman mixes up pure with impure food (*unmiśrita*), etc. A zealous monk should wipe the thing after having inspected it with his eyes, then he should take it up or put it down. Excrements, urine, saliva, mucus, and uncleanliness of the body should be disposed of in the way described. In a place neither frequented nor seen by others, which offers no obstacles to self-control, which is not covered with grass or leaves, which is spacious, in such a place he should leave his excrements, etc.²

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² *Uttarādh*, XXIV, 17, 18, cf *Ācārānga*, II, 10, cf Pāli Vinaya Pitaka, III, 36

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There are: (1) truth, (2) untruth, (3) a mixture of truth and untruth, and (4) a mixture of what is not true and what is not untrue. A zealous monk should prevent his mind from desires for the misfortune of somebody else, from thoughts on acts which cause misery to living beings and from thoughts on acts which cause their destruction. In standing, sitting, lying down, jumping, going and in the use of his organs, a zealous monk should prevent his mind from intimating evil desires, etc. These are the *samitis* for the practice of the religious life and *guptis* for the prevention of everything sinful.

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The correct behaviour of monks consists in ten posts: *āraśyikā* is required when a monk leaves a room for some urgent business; *naisedhikī* asking permission to enter a place; *āprcchanā* or asking the superior's permission for what he is to do himself; *pratiprcchanā*, asking permission for what somebody else is to do; *chandanā* or placing at the disposal of other monks the things one has got; *icchākāra* carrying out one’s intention by oneself or somebody else; *mithyākāra*, blaming oneself for sins committed; *tathākāra*, assenting to make a promise; *abhyutthāna*, rising up from one’s seat as a mark of respect for those who deserve it, and *upasam-pad*, placing oneself under another teacher.¹

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A worthy monk should have no intercourse with women considering the consequences. He should avoid them. Those who have intercourse with women, have ceased to practise meditation.² One should not mind the entreaties of women, but abstain from their friendship and company. The pleasures which are derived therefrom are causes of blamable actions. A wise and learned monk whose soul is in a pure condition (*leśyā*) will abstain from doing work for others;³ he will bear all troubles in thoughts, words and actions.

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A virtuous monk should never keep company with the wicked. He should not stay in the house of a householder except by constraint. He should obey and serve a wise and pious teacher. If beaten he should not be angry. With placid mind he should bear everything.

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A true monk should not say that this is meritorious and this is not meritorious. He should guard his soul, bring his senses under his control and put a stop to the current of the *saṃsāra*. He should be free from sins. He is entitled to expound the pure, complete and unparalleled law. He should try to reach beatitude.

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If a monk is attached to vanities and makes his monkhood a means of sustenance, he will suffer again and again.⁴ A monk who is eloquent, who has bright ideas and possesses high intellect, has purified his soul. He should combat pride of genius, pride of sanctity, pride of birth,⁵ and pride of good living. A monk having conquered aversion to control and delight in sensual objects, should silently repeat to himself, a man must come and go according to his own *karma* alone. The pious are not given to blamable sinful practices. Avoiding all evils, monks should without embarrassment and passion preach the law.

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A monk who complies with the rules for the *yatis* as regards postures, lying down, sitting and exertion, who is thoroughly acquainted with the samitis and guptis, should explain each single point of conduct. He should not allow himself to be influenced by pleasant sounds. He should persevere in control. A novice who has not mastered the law does not know the law, but he will know it afterwards through the words of the Jinas. A well-conducted monk will explain the conduct of the virtuous. A monk by hearing the desired truth, gets bright ideas and becomes a clever teacher, desiring the highest good and practising austerity he will obtain final liberation. Those, who having investigated the law, are awakened and they put an end to mundane existence. They do not conceal the truth or falsify it. They do not cherish desire for fame. A monk should be honest and fearless. He should expound the syādvāda,¹ he should use permitted kind of speech and should be impartial and wise. He should utter pure speech which is in accordance with the creed of the Jinas. He should well learn the sacred text, endeavour to teach the creed and should not speak unduly long. He should deliver faithfully what he has learnt. He should not pervert or render obscure the truth.

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¹ *Vide* B C Law, *Mahāvīra His Life and Teachings*, pp 72ff Syādvāda consists of seven nayas or viewpoints from which assertions are made as to truth. According to the doctrine of Syādvāda there are seven forms of metaphysical propositions and all contain the word syāt, e g syād asti sarvam, syād nāsti sarvam—syāt means ‘may be’ and it is explained as *Kathamcit* (somehow) Hastings, *Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics*, Vol 7, p 468

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A monk who does not act nor kill, who is free from anger, pride, deceit and greed, who is calm and happy, will never entertain such wish that after his departure from the world he will become a god or a perfected saint.² He does no actions arising from sinful causes, nor has them done by another person nor does he consent to another doing them. A monk should not take food or drink when he knows that a householder to satisfy him or for the sake of a co-religionist has brought it. One should eat when it is time for eating, seek cover when it is time for seeking cover and sleep when it is time for sleeping. When a monk preaches the law he should preach it indefatigably for no other motive than the annihilation of karma. Such a monk searches the law, knows the law and endeavours to gain liberation. He knows and renounces action and worldly occupation, he is free from passion, possesses the samitis, being wise, virtuous, and liberated, living on low food, desiring to get to the shore of the saṃsāra fulfilling the general and particular virtues.

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² *Cf* Samyutta, IV, p 180, Ang, IV, p 461 *devo vā bhavissāmi devañ-ñataro vāti*

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A monk abstains from the five cardinal sins, slaughter of living beings, etc. He does not clean his teeth with a tooth brush, he does not accept perfumes, emetics and collyrium. Such a monk does not act nor kill; he is free from anger, pride, deceit and greed; he is calm and happy. He is well controlled and restrained, avoids and renounces sins, is not active but careful and thoroughly wise.

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A monk, who has achieved his religious perfection through the instruction of the Awakened One and stands firm in it, who guards himself in the three-fold way with regard to thoughts, words and acts, and who possesses the things requisite for crossing the immense ocean of existence, may preach the law.

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A monk or a nun on a begging-tour should not accept as alms whatever herbs they recognize. He or she should accept things which are pure and acceptable. He or she should not accept food which has been prepared for Brahmuns, guests, beggars, etc. He or she should not accept food which does not belong to the giver. He or she may accept food from noble families, distinguished families, and royal families. He or she should not attend any festive entertainment. He or she should not accept such food of which he or she has some doubts in his or her mind. A monk or a nun desirous of entering the abode of a householder should not do so when they see that the milch cows are being milked, or the food is being cooked, and that it is not yet distributed.

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A monk or a nun on a begging tour should not accept flattened grams, grains containing such chaff.

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A mendicant should not stay in halting places, garden houses, family houses and monasteries, which are much frequented by fellow-ascetics.

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A monk shall not beg pointing with a finger at the householder or moving him with a finger, threatening or scratching him with a finger, praising or cursing him¹

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He or she should speak with precision²

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If a single mendicant borrows for a short time a robe from another mendicant, the owner of it should not take such a robe for himself nor should he give it to somebody else. A monk or a nun should not make coloured clothes colourless or colour colourless clothes.

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The Jain rules of conduct and decorum, agreeing in their essential features with the Buddhist rules, were broadbased upon careful considerations and keen observations.³

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The foregoing exposition of the principles of Jainism may be made more explicit in the light of Umāsvāti’s Tattvārthādhigamasūtra. According to Umāsvāti, right belief, right knowledge, and right conduct constitute the path to liberation and they are called three gems in Jainism Each of them can be considered in its three-fold aspect, e.g. the subject, the object and the means. In right belief there is the believer, that which is believed, and the means of believing. In right knowledge there is the knower, the known and the means of knowing In right conduct there is the pursuer of conduct, conduct itself and the means of conducting The right belief is the basis upon which the other two rest. It is the cause and right knowledge is the effect. Right conduct is caused by right knowledge and implies both right knowledge and right belief

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The five kinds of knowledge are: Knowledge through the instrumentality of sense, knowledge derived from the study of scriptures, direct knowledge of matter within the limits of time and space, direct knowledge of others’ thoughts, and perfect knowledge.

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The five kinds of conduct¹ are: Equanimity, recovery of equanimity after a downfall, pure and absolute non-injury, all but entire freedom from passion, and ideal and passionless state.

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¹ Cf Sūtrakṛtāṅga, I, 1, 4, 10-13

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Right belief, right knowledge, right conduct, and right austerities are called the ārādhanās.

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The right belief is the belief or conviction in things ascertained as they are.² Samyakdarśana is of two kinds. (1) belief with attachment, the signs of which are the following: calmness (praśama), fear of mundane existence in five cycles of wanderings (saṃvega), substance (dravya), place (kṣetra), time (kāla), thought activity (bhāva), and compassion towards all living beings (anukampā), and (2) belief without attachment (the purity of the soul itself)

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² Cf Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, XXVIII, 28, 29.

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The right belief is attained by intuition, acquisition of knowledge from external sources It is the result of subsidence (upaśama), destruction-subsidence (kṣayopaśama) and destruction of right belief deluding karmas (darśana mohanīya karma).

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Right belief is not identical with faith. It is reasoned knowledge. Adhigama is knowledge which is derived from intuition, external sources, e.g. precepts and scriptures. It is attained by means of pramāṇa and naya. Pramāṇa is upon the earth; undertaking to do by one's own hand what should be done by others; admiration of hurtful or unrighteous thing; proclaiming sins of others; misinterpreting the scriptural injunctions which we do not want to follow; disrespect to scriptural injunctions out of vice or laziness; expressing delight in other's misdeeds; trying to persevere in one's attachment to worldly belongings; deceitful disturbance of someone's right knowledge and faith; praising actions due to wrong belief; not renouncing what ought to be renounced.

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The causes of bondage (bandha) are the following: (1) wrong belief; (2) perverse belief; (3) doubt, scepticism; (4) veneration; (5) wrong belief caused by ignorance; and (6) inborn error.

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The ten virtues are the following: forgiveness (uttama kṣamā), humility (uttama mārdava), honesty (uttama ārjava),¹ purity (uttama śauca), truthfulness (uttama satya), restraint (uttama saṃyama), austerities (uttama tapa), renunciation (uttama tyāga), selflessness (uttama ākiñcanya), and chaste life (uttama brahmacarya).

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¹ Uttama ārjava—Ārjava has been understood by some as that simplicity which is opposed to cunningness.

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Twelve meditations ² are the meditations on transitoriness, helplessness, mundaneness, loneliness, separateness, impurity, inflow, stoppage, relinquishment, universe, rarity of right path and nature of right path.

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² Cf Buddhist asubha-bhāvanā, Vinaya, III, p 68, on impurity, Visuddhimagga (PTS), I, 84ff, 178ff

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Keśava, 144 Kevalañāṇa, 106 Kururāṣṭra, 82 Khuddakapāṭha, 14 Kirātas, 59 Kośala, 74 Kṛṣṇa-Vāsudeva, 48 Kumārakassapa, 74 Kūṇika, 67 Kūṇiya, 36, 72 Kuśāvatī, 85 Kuśinārā, 44

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